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SYSTEMATIC TEXT-BOOK 



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E N 6 LIS H G R A M M A R 



ON A NEW PLAN: 



WITH .capious 



QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 



BY SMITH B. GOODENOW, 

LATE PRINCIPAL OF BATH ACADEMY. 



PORTLAND: 
WILL I AM H Y D E 
1839. 



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SYSTEaiATIC TEXT-BOOK 



OF 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



ON A NEW PLAN; 



WITH COPIOUS 



QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 



BY SMITH B. GOODENOW, 

LATE PRINXIPAL OF BATH ACADEMY. 




PORTLAND: 

WILLIAM HYDE. 

1839. 



6 S^ 






Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1839, 

By Smith B. Goodenow, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Maine. 




A. SHIRLEY, PRINTER, 

No. 47, Exchange Street, Portland. 



PREFACE 



When a new work is thrown upon the world, it is rightly 
expected of the projector, to show that there is need of such 
an addition to the mass of matter already in print. We will, 
therefore, introduce this book to the public, by mentioning a 
few of the important defects, which exist in the prevailing 
systems of English Grammar, and which render a new attempt 
upon this already hackneyed subject, at least excusable. Our 
limits will allow us barely to mention these defects, referring 
the reader, for further remarks, to the appendix. 

1. The prevailing syslems contain many erroneous principles, 
which serve to disgust the scholar, ajid which increase the 
difficulty, while they diminish the usefulness of the study. 
Such are the following: — that Grammar is a mere art; — that 
such nouns as love, blessedness, ^c. are common ; that in the 
sentence, " What is there here ?" there is an adverb of place ; 
that in the sentence, " Whom the coat fits, let him put it on," 
him is antecedent to lohom ; — that you is always plural ; — that 
a noun may be of the first person ; — that nouns connected by 
and, always require a plural verb ; that there are three, and 
only three, distinctions in regard to sex ; — that a is never to be 
used before a vowel, and an never before a consonant ; — that 
first, second, &fc» are numerals ; — that the positive is a degree of 
compaiison; — that an adverb forms part of an adjective; — that 
the participle is not a mode or manner of representing the 
verb ; — that in the expressions, " He goes," "If he goes," the 
verb, although of the same form and meaning, is of different 
modes , — that a verb mary be, at the same time, of two modes ; 
as " If I could go ;" — that tenses are merely distinctions of 
time, and therefore, there are six divisions of time ; — that the 
imperative, infinitive, and participial modes, have distinctions 
of time ; — that the potential mode has no futures ; — that shall 
and will are always indicative; — that a5,''and other such con- 
junctions, show opposition of meaning; — that the subject of a 
verb always consists of a single word ; — that there are but 
three cases or relations of substantives ; — that the case inde- 
pendent is always of the second person ; — that ours, yours, ^'c. 
are possessive cases; — that the possessive case is governed by 



IV. PREFACE. 

the following word ; — that the comparative always compares 
two things, and that the latter term of comparison should nev- 
er include the former ; — that infinitives are governed by nouns, 
conjunctions, &c. — that the infinitive loses its sign after the 
participles made, seen, heard, ^c. — that in the sentence, " I wish 
you to ride," you and to ride are governed separately ; — that 
in the sentence, "It is to be," to he is governed by is; — that 
verbs connected by conjunctions should alivays be of the same 
mode and tense ; — that dozen, hundred, ^'c. are adjectives ; 
that a may belong to plural nouns ; as, " a men ;" — that like, 
unlike, near, up, down, off, S^'c, are prepositions ; &c. &c. &c. 
All these errors, and many others, are here corrected. 

2. The prevailing systems do not contain some important 
principles and remarks, without which language cannot be 
armlyzed. Every teacher will bear witness, that he finds 
many constructions, not noticed in our grammars. Most of 
these omissions, we think, are here supplied. To make this 
grammar complete^ we have thoroughly examined every au- 
thor on the subject, to whom we could gain access, such as 
Lowth, Home Tooke, Murray, Blair, Perry, Prof Coote, 
Webster 2, Ingersol 2, Fisk, Brown, Kirkham, Greene, Pond, 
Wilbur and Bryant, Parker and Fox, Sanborn, Clarke, Alex- 
ander, Parkhurst, Dearborn, Frost, Balch, Smith, Clagget, 
Cobbet, Greenleaf, and several others ; and we have endea- 
vored to combine and concentrate the excellencies of them 
all. We have also, from time to time, consulted some of the 
best teachers in the State upon doubtful points. Orthography 
and Prosody, as well as the other parts, are made much more 
full and practical, than in any of our books. 

3. The prevailing systems are too complex and diffuse. Too 
many unimportant points are brought forward, and too many 
things are treated in the obscure and obsolete style of the 
dead languages. This fault we have labored to remove, es- 
pecially in relation to the verb ; while at the same time, we 
have aimed to avoid all unnecessary innovation. 

4. The prevailing systems are very deficient in classification 
and airangement. Critical discussions, notes, questions, and 
exercises, are all brought together or>»the same page v/ith the 
first principles of the language, serving merely to confuse the 
mind. But here, all criticisms are thrown into the appendix, 
and the questions and exercises are made the second part of 
the book, which any teacher may use or not, as he pleases ; 
leaving the principles of the language, arranged in the sim- 
plest and clearest manner, and covering but thirty-four small 
pages, to be studied and referred to at pleasure. These prin- 
ciples are numbered for convenient reference, and the most 
important are printed with a larger type. The exercises con- 



PREFACE. V. 

tain two courses ; the first upon the large type, for beginners ; 
the other upon the whole grammar, for more advanced scholars. 
The language as thus treated, remains no longer, as some rep- 
resent it, a Babel of confusion, filled up with anomalies and 
exceptions, and containing the dregs of every tongue ; but a 
fair and simple edifice, convenient in all its parts, and capable 
of a comparison with the proudest languages of modern times. 

The work has been in progress for about five years, and has 
been taught to persons of all ages, to teachers and to pupils, 
by all of whom, as well as by those who have carefully ex- 
amined it, it has been highly approved. 

We suspect the first question with many will be — do you 
innovate ? We answer — we do in some respects. If we did 
not, if we followed exactly in the steps of our predecessors, 
we would not trouble the public with a booklT As we profess 
to combine the excellencies of all systems, v/e can hardly be 
expected to agree exactly with any one of them. But it is 
believed, that in those points, upon which we difier most from 
the common methods, we have the sanction of the ablest crit- 
ics who have written upon the language ; and experience has 
shown that those points need not cause the least confusion in 
the minds of those, who have already attended to other sys- 
tems. 

Great pains have been taken in the mechanical execution of 
the book. Yet a few unimportant typographical and verbal 
errors will be found in some of the copies ; but, less, it is be- 
lieved, than are commonly found in such works. We do not 
profess to have attained perfection ; for we have found too 
many errors even in the most pretending systems, to imagine 
that we are free from dQfects. 

With these remarks, the work is submitted to the public, in 
the hope that it may be of some service to the cause of com- 
mon education. S. B. G. 



CONTENTS, 

AND PLAN OF THE WORK, 



Page, 

L ETYMOLOGY, .;,.... 9 

L Substantives, 10 

I. Nouns — 1. proper — 2. common — 3. abstract, , ib. 

II. Pronouns — Impersonal — 2. relative, . . , ih. 
Properties of Substantives — 1. per» — 2. num. — 3. gen, 11 

IL Adjectives, . 14 

I. Definitives, — 1. articles — 2. demonst. — 3. indef. — 

4. distrih, — 5. numerals — 6. ordinals, . . ib, 

II. Descriptives, 15 

III. Verbs, modes, tenses, principal parts, conjugation, 17 

IV. Particles, . . . . . . . 23 

I. Adverbs, » ib. 

II. Conjunctions, . . . . . . . 24 

III. Prepositions, ....... 26. 

IV. Interjections, . . . . . . . ib^ 

Phrases, . . .25 

Different uses of the same word, .... ib. 

Derivation, 26 

IL SYNTAX, 29 

Sentences, simple, compound, . . . . . . ih. 



CONTENTS. Vll. 

Page, 

Relations of Words, 31 

I. Relations of Substantives, Rules 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . ib, 

II. Relations of Adjectives, Rule 7, . . . 35 

III. Relations of Verbs, Rules 8, 9, 10, . . . ib. 

IV. Relations of Particles, Rules 11, 12, 13, 14, . 38 

Position, . . 39 

Ellipsis, . . . 40 

The three Errors, 42 

III. ORTHOGRAPHY, . . . . . . 43 

I. Letters — 1. vowels — 2. consonants, .... ib, 

II. Words — monosyllables, &c 46 

III. Spelling— i?wZe5 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,7,3, , . . ib. 

IV. Abbreviation — classes of abbreviations, . . 48 

V. Punctuation — 1. marks of pause — 2. other characters, 50 

VI. Capitals— i2w?e5 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . . 54 

VII. Typography, &c ih. 

IV. PROSODY, 56 

I. Utterance, ........ i&. 

I. Pronunciation — 1. articulation — 2, stress — 3. slides, ib. 

II. Modulation — 1. melody — 2. force — 3. rate, . .61 

II. Poetry, . .65 

I. Double measure — 1. Iambic — 2. Trochaic, . . 66 

II. Triple measure — 1. Dactyl. — 2. Amphib. — S.Jlnap. 67 

APPENDIX, containing notes, critical and explanatory, 71 

PART SECOND, containing questions and exercises, 99 

First Course, for beginners, 101 

Second Course, with false Syntax, . . . 118 



TO TEAC HERS. 

As this work has some peculiarities, it is recommended to 
the iastructor to examine it throughout, before he commences 
teaching it. If the second part is used, let beginners, and 
those little acquainted with the subject, commence at the first 
course, and, when they are familiar with this, proceed to the 
second. Those more advanced may begin at once upon the se- 
cond course. Let each recitation be opened with a review of 
the previous lessons, particularly the last, and closed with a 
full explanation of the succeeding lesson. In recitation, let 
each point be carefully explained and illustrated to the com- 
prehension of every pupil, and let nothing be passed over till 
it is perfectly understood. In parsing, it is far better to go 
through with a few sentences repeatedly, till the manner of 
parsing them is familiar, than to wander over a large number 
of exercises. 

In the second course, questions are not given ; because in 
this stage of the study, they are found to be, on the whole, a 
disadvantage to the teacher, and to the scholars. The teacher 
insensibly becomes confined to these printed questions, and 
the scholar often passes over his lesson, repeating a form of 
words, without any understanding of the subject. Let the 
teacher ask such questions as he thinks best, and as the cir- 
cumstances require, and let the pupil be encouraged to give 
the answers, especially those from the smaller type, in his own 
language, rather than in the exact words of the book. Then 
let him parse the corresponding exercises of the first course, 
and those of the second ; after which, he will correct the false 
grammar, stating fully his reasons at each step. 

*^'^ It is found very much to facilitate scholars, to cause 
them to recite, vvhen it is possible, simultaneously* In this 
manner, the list of definitives, the conjugation of verbs, the 
declension of substantives, &c. may be very easily and pleas- 
antly learned. The rules of Syntax also may be divided into 
measures, and repeated by the whole, the teacher beating the 
time, as in music. The author has even had a class of fifty, 
who would parse whole paragraphs simultaneously, according 
to the table on page 100, without the least discord or mistake. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



1. English Grammar is the science which teaches the 
correct use of the English language. 

2. It has four parts : — Etymology, Syntax, Orthog- 
raphy, and Prosody. 

3. Etymology treats of ivords^ Syntax of sentences ; Orthog- 
raphy teaches correct writings and Prosody correct utterance 
and the laws of poetry. 



I. ETYMOLOGY. 

4. Etymology treats of words, their different kinds, 
their changes, and their derivation. 

5. All words may be divided into four general classes : 
Substantives, Adjectives, Verbs, and Particles. 

6. (i.) Substantives are all words which represent persons, 
places, or things, including nouns and pronouns. 

7. (ii.) Adjectives are all words added to substantives to 
show how far their signification extends, including Definitives 
and Descriptives. (.59, 72.) 

8. (in.) Verbs are all words which serve to make statements, 
denoting either being or action. 

9. (iv.) Particles are all less necessary words of different 
kinds, used to show the nice distinctions of meanings including 
Adverbs, Conjunctions, Prepositions, and Interjections. 

10. Thus there are in all nine divisions of words, called 
parts of speech, — Nouns, Pronouns, Definitives, Descriptives, 
Verbs, Adverbs, Conjunctions, Prepositions,, and Interjections. 

1 



10 ETYMOLOGIC 



I. SUIlSTAr¥TIVES. 

IL Substantives are all words which represent persons, 
places, or things, including Nouns and Pronouns, 

12. Nouns are the names of all persons, places, and things ; 
and Pronouns are words used instead of these names. 

I. NOUNS. 

13. Nouns are the names of all persons, places, and 
things: as, George j Boston^ man, multitude, mercy, — 
They are of three kinds, — Proper, Common, and Ab- 
stract. 

14. (i.) A proper noun is the name of some individual 
object ; as, George, Boston, April. 

15. (ii.) A common noun is the name of a whole class 
of objects ; as, man, toivn, 7nonth. 

16. Some common nouns are called collective, because they 
denote a collection of objects considered together ; as crowdj 
herd, number, dozen, hundred. 

17. We may use a proper noun as common, or a common 
noun as proper, by prefixing to it some definitive ; as, * He is 
the Cicero of his age ;' ' The sun has risen.' 

18. (hi.) An abstract noun is the name, not of a sub- 
stance, but of a quality ; as, love, justice, weight. 

19. Many nouns are used sometimes as proper, sometimes 
as common, and sometimes as abstract; as, *Thus spake Rea- 
son f 'I gave my reasons;' 'He was deprived of reason.' 

^I. PHONOUNS. 

20. Pronouns are words used instead of naraes, to avoid 
their too frequent repetition ; as, ' George, ask John, if he 
will assist you.'' — They are of two kinds, Personal and 
Relative pronouns. 



ETYMOLOGY. 11 

21. (i.) Personal pronouns are such as show exactly 
what person is meant. They are six, J, thou^ you^ he^ 
she^ it. (Pkirals, loe^ ye^ you^ they.) 

22. The words it and there are frequently used in a rather 
indefinite manner, and may then be caired Indefinite Pronouns ; 
as, 'It rains;' *How is it with you?' 'There is no peace;' 
* What need was there of it ? ' They generally represent some 
word which comes after them. 

23. (ii.) Relative Pronouns are such as relate directly 
to other words, and serve to connect sentences. They 
are three, who^ wliich^ and that, 

24. When which relates to the Adjective that or those, the 
two words are usually contracted into what, which is hence 
called ^compound relative; as, 'He knows what is right;' or, 
' He knows that which is right.' 

25. Who, which, and what, frequently have the terminations, 
so, ever, and soever added to them. They are then called com- 
pound relatives, and are equivalent to he ivho, that which, &c. ; 
as, ' Whoever drinks must die ;' or, ' He who drinks must die.' 

26. Who, when it asks a question, may be called an Inter- 
rogative pronoun. The word to which it relates is then in the 
answer; us, ' ^Ao comes here ? John.'' 

27. The word for which a pronoun stands, and to which 
it relates, if it comes before the pronoun, is called its an- 
tecedent ; if after the pronoun, its subsequent. 



PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANTIVES. 

28. To substantives belong person^ number^ and gender. 

I. PERSON. 

29. ( I.) A substantive which represents the speaker is 
said to be of the Jirst person. The only word properly of 
this kind is I, (plural, we.) 

: 30. (ii.) A substantive which represents the person 
spoken to, is said to be of the second person. The only 
words properly of this kind are you and thou, (plural, ye.) 



12 ETYMOLOGY, 

31. You is used in common style, and thou (plural ye,) in 
solemn style, (240.) 

32. (hi.) a substantive which represents the person or 
thing spoken about ^ is said to be of the third person. This 
includes all the nouns, and the pronouns Ae, she^ it^ (pl^* 
ral they^) and which, 

33. The pronouns who and that may be of any person, 
to agree with their antecedents or subsequents. (227.) 

^4. A noun is sometimes put in the second person to 
denote a direct address ; as, ' Johfi^ study your lesson.' 

II. NUMBER. 

35. Substantives have two numbers, the singular and 
the plural. The singular number denotes one object, the 
plural more than one; as, loy^ house^ tree^ singular; loys^ 
houses^ trees ^ plural. 

36. Most nouns become plural by the addition of s to 
their singular ; as, hoy^ house^ tree^ singular ; hoys^ houses, 
trees ^ plural. 

37. But nouns ending in s. ss, x, sh, ch soft, and o with a 
consonant before it, take es to form the plural , as, miss, misses; 
box, boxes ; lash, lashes ; church, churches ; hero, heroes, 

38. Nouns ending in y with a consonant before it, change 
the y into ies ; as, beauty, beauties ; glory, glories. But not so 
when preceded by a vowel ; as, day, days, 

39. Many nouns ending in single / or fe, change those ter- 
minations into ves ; as, loaf, loaves; wife, wives; also, staff, 
staves, 

40. The following are irregular plurals : man, men ; woman, 
women ; child, children ; brother, brethren ; ox, oxen ; foot, feet ; 
goose, geese; tooth, teeth; louse, liee; mousey mice; penny, 
pence ; die, dice, 

41. Many nouns from other languages form their plurals as 
in the original. Thus, um. and on are changed into a, is into es, 
X into ids, us into i; ViS, stratum, strata ; axis, axes; index, in- 
dices ; focxis, foci. The following also are foreign plurals : 
cherub, cherubim ; seraph, seraphim ; genus, genera ; stamen, sta- 
mina ; lamina, lamince ; beau, beaux ; bandit, banditti, 

42. Some of the foregoing words have also regular plurals ; 
as, brothers, pennies (coins,) dies (for coining,) appendixes, enco- 



ETYMOLOGY. 13 

tniuTUS, indexes (pointers, tables of contents,) g*emwsc5 (persons 
of genius,) memorandums, cheruhs, seraphs^ bandits. 

43. In compound nouns, that part which is most distinguish- 
ing should take the plural; as, hasJcetful, hasketfuls ; Miss 
Jones, Misses Jones; son-in-law, sons-in-law, 

44. A collective noun has a regular plural number. But 
when the individuals included are to be taken separately, the 
singular too has the meaning and construction of a plural ; as, 
* The croivd raise their voices.' 

45. Some nouns have no plural ; as, butter, wheat, pitch, 
gold, news, sloth, Tliis is the case with proper and abstract 
nouns, used as such. 

46. Some nouns have no singular; as, bellows, scissors, 
to7igs, embers, oats, clothes, calends, nones, ides, matins, vespers, 
orgies, amends, lungs, riches, pains, alms, nuptials, optics, &c. ; 
tmd some from the Latin ; as, antipodes, credenda, literati^ 
minutiae, 

47. The relative pronouns have the same form in both 
numbers. Also some nouns ; as, deer^ sheep, swine^ 
means, hiatus, apparatus, series, species, hose, wages, A 
pronoun^s number is known by that of its^ antecedents 
(227.) 

48. Such nouns as the following frequently have the same 
form in both numbers : dozen, hundred, thousand, fish, herring, 
head, cannon^ sail; as, 'Two hundred barrel of fish ;^ 'Twenty 
head of cattle ;' ' Ten sail of vessels,' 

49. The personal pronouns form their plurals thus : J, 
loe ; thou, ye ; you, you ; he, she,, and it, — they, 

50. Two or more singulars connected by and form one plu- 
ral, unless they mean the same thing-, or are to be separately 
considered ; as, ' He and she are two ;' ' That philosopher and 
poet was 07ie ;' ^ Each doctor and lawyer is oneJ 



III. GENDER. 

51. (i.) A substantive which denotes di male, is said to 
be of the 7nasculine gender ; as, king, man, brother, 

52. (ii.) A substantive which denotes a, female, is said 
to be of fhe feminine gender ; as, queen, luoman, sister, 

53. (ill.) A substantive w^hich denotes neither a male 

*1 



14 ETYMOLOGY. 

nor a female, is said to be of neuter gender ; as, house ^ 
tree^ month. 

54. (iv.) A substantive which denotes either d, male or 
a female, is said to be of common gender ; as, parent^ 
child ^ cat. 

55. The pronoun 7ig is masculine, s7ie feminine, it neu- 
ter. J, thoUy you^ and 2vho^ are common, and which and 
that may be of any gender. But a pronoun is always of 
the same gender as its antecedent. (227.) 

56. A collective noun, when the individuals are taken sep- 
arately, is of the same gender as they are ; but when they are 
taken collectively, it is neuter. 



II. ADJECTITES. 

57. Adjectives are all words added to substantives, to 
show how far their signification extends, including Defini- 
tives and Descriptives. 

58. Definitives are words which define, and descriptives are 
words which descnbe, 

I. DEFINITIVES. 

59. Definitives are words which deji7ie or limit the 
meaning of substantives ; as, a man., the dog., every day., 
that horse. 

60. The following are the principal definitives ; an,, 
one., another., 7nuch^ this^ that., each., every., either., and 
neither., singular ; — these., those., loth., few., many., several., 
two., three., (&;c.) plural; — the., former., latter., own^ very., 
same., some, any., other., all., such., no., none^ which., lohat.^ 

fir St .^ second. (&c.) of both numbers. 



ETYMOLOGY. 15 

61. An becomes a before a consonant sound;* as, a 
house^ a union {yunion^) a one [loun.) 

62. But not before a word beginning witb h and accented 
on the second syllable ; as, an heroic action^ an historical 
poem, 

63. These is formed from this^ those from that, another from 
ail other, neither from not either, none from no i)ne ; yet this 
last may be used as plural ; as, * None other men.' 

64. Like which and w/iat, their compounds are often used 
as adjectives; as, * Whichever way you go;' 'Whatsoever 
things are lovely.' 

65. (i.) Articles. This name is given to the words a or 
an and the, which are very much used to limit nouns. A or 
an means the same as one, and is called the Indefinite article. 
The means something like that, and is called the Definite 
article. 

66. (ii.) Demonstratives. This name is given to the 
words this, that, these, those, former, latter, &c., on account of 
their definite meaning. 

67. (ill.) I^^DEFINITEs. This name is given to the words 
some, one, any, other, all, such, &.C., on account of their indefi- 
nite meaning. 

68. (iv.) Distributives. This name is given to the words 
each, every, either, and neither, because they represent things 
taken one by one. The word inany is sometimes so used ; 
as, ' Full many a fiower is born to blush unseen.' 

69. (v.) Numerals. This name is given to the words oiu, 
two, three, four, &c., because they denote number, 

70. (vi.) Ordinals. This name is given to the words 
first, second, third, &c., because they denote order, 

71. Most definitives may be used with the substantive 
understood ; as, ' Some [people] think that one [thing] is 
as good as another.' [thing] (147.) (287.) 



IL DESCmPTIVES. 

72. Descriptives are words which descrihe or qualify 
thB meaning of substantives ; as, good men, tall trees^ 
eternal xoisdom. 



* A consonant sound is tlie sound of any letter except a, e, i, o, 
and u. 



16 ETYMOLOGY. 

73. There are a few words which may be called either de- 
finitives or descriptives, such as ftw^ many, much, enough, 

74. Many descriptives, especially short ones, have 
three forms to represent different degrees of the quality ; 
as, great, greater, greatest. (83.) 

75. (i.) The positive form represent^ the quality in its 
positive or simple state ; as, the tall tree, the icise man, 

76. (ii.) The comparative form represents the quality 
in its comparative or increased degree ; as, a taller tree, 
a wiser man, 

77. (hi.) The superlative form represents the quality 
in its superlative or highest degree; as, the tallest tree, 
the wisest man, 

78. The comparative and superlative are formed from 
the positive, by adding er and est, (or r and st if the pos- 
itive end in e) ; as, tall, taller, tallest ; wise, wiser, 
wisest, 

79. If the positive end in ?/, that letter in the other forms is 
changed to i ; as, happy, happier, happiest. 

80. Some superlatives are formed by adding 77105^ to their 
positives, which resemble comparatives ; 3iS, former, foremost or 
first ; hinder, hindermost or hindmost ; inner, innermost or in- 
most ; outer, outermost or outmost ; utter, uttermost or utmost; 
upper, uppermost ; under, undermost ; nether, nethermost ; so 
topmost, headmost, &c. 

81. The following words have their forms irregular; good, 
better, best; bad, worse, worst -, little, less, least ; much or many, 
more, most, JVext and last are superlatives of near and late. 
Elder and eldest mean the same as older and oldest, 

82. The termination ish is sometim.es added to words, form-, 
ing what may be called the imperfect form ; as, whitish, reddish. 

83. Another common way of expressing the degrees of 
quality, is by means of adverbs prefixed to the descriptive; 
as, gentle, more gentle, most gentle, less gentle, very gentle, &c. 
But double degrees should be avoided ; such as, most wisest, 
betterer, 

84. Descriptives which in themselves denote fixedness, do 
not admit of degrees, or of the adverbs more, most, less, least, 
which express degrees. Thus we should say nearer perfect, 
not more perfect ; nearest round, not roundest^ 



ETYMOLOGY. 17 



III. VERBS. 

85. Verbs are all words which serve to make state- 
ments^ denoting either being or action ; as, ' I am ;' ' He 
studies.^ They are of two kinds, Transitive and Intran- 
sitive. 

86. (i.) A transitive verb is one which affects (or 
plainly may affect) an object ; as, ' He studies his les- 

87. (ii.) An intransitive verb is one which does not 
affect an object ; as, ' I am ;' ' George walks.'* 

88. The intransitive verb 6e, (of which am^ art, is, are, was, 
were, been, are variations,) is sometimes called the substantive 
verb or copula, since it denotes simple existence, and serves to 
couple terms together, 

89. Some verbs may be used either as transitive or as in- 
transitive ; as, ^ She faded the cloth in the sun ;' ' The cloth 
Jaded in the sun.' 

90. Some verbs, otherwise intransitive, may affect an object 
signifying the same as themselves or their subjects ; as, ' To 
ru7i a race f ' He ran himself to death ;' ' The curfew tolls the 
kndl of parting day.' 

91. Auxiliary or helping verbs are those by the help 
of which the meaning of other verbs is varied, they being 
considered as parts of those verbs. They are do, have^ 
?7iay, can, shall, will, must ; (with their variations did^ 
had, might, could^ should, ivould ;) as, 'I do move;' 'I 
have moved ;' ' I shall have moved.' 

92. The verbs do, have, and ivill are used also as simple 
verbs ; as, ' I have it ;' 'I did it ;' ' He willed away his prop- 



erty.' 



MODES. 



93. Modes are particular forms of the verb, showing 
the mode or manner in which the being or action is rep- 
resented. There are five modes, the Indicative, the Po- 



18 ETYMOLOGY. 

tential^ the Imperative^ the Infinitive^ and the Parti- 
cipiaL 

94. (i.) The indicative mode simply indicates or de- 
clares ; as, ' I move ;' ' I do move,'* 

95. (ii.) The potential mode implies possibility, power, 
will, or obligation ; as, ' I may move ;' ' \ can move ;' ' I 
will move ;' ' I must move,"* 

96. There are four ways in which the indicative and po- 
tential modes may be used ; — 1, the affirmative ; as, ' I 
come,' 'I can come.' — 2, the negative; as, 'I come not,' *I 
cannot come.' — 3, the interrogative ; as, ' Come I ? ' ' Can I 
come?' — 4, the subjunctive, or doubtful; as, 'If I come,' 'If 
I can come.' (188.) 

97. (ill.) The imperative mode commands, exhorts, 
or permits ; as, ' Move thou ;' ' Do thou move,'* 

98. (iv.) The infinitive mode represents the verb in a 
general and indefinite manner ; as, ' To move ;' ' To 
have moved,'* 

99. (v.) The participial mode represents the verb as 
participating of the nature of an adjective, and is either 
active or passive, 

100. A participle active represents a thing as really 
being or acting ; as, ' A body moving,, or having moved,'* 

101. A participle passive represents a thing as being 
acted upon ; as, ' The body leing moved,'* It belongs 
only to transitive verbs. 

102. But an intransitive participle, by the addition of a 
particle, may become a compound passive participle ; as, ' You 
are smiled upon,^ 

103. Infinitives may generally be known by their sign 
^0, and participles by their termination ing. These two 
modes always have the nature of substantives or of ad- 
jectives, and the same relations in sentences. (248, 257.) 
The other modes are called finite^ because their meaning 
is always limited to particular substantives. 



ETYMOLOGY, 19 

TENSES . 

104. Tenses are particular forms of the verb, showing 
the time and completeness with which the being or action 
is represented. 

105. There are three divisions of time, present^ pasf^ 
and future. Each of these divisions has two tenses, a 
perfect and an imperfect, 

106. Thus there are six tenses, the imperfect present^ 
the perfect present ; the imperfect past^ the perfect past ; 
the imperfect future^ and the perfect future, 

107. The imperfect tenses represent the being or ac- 
tion as unfinished^ and the perfect tenses represent it as 

finished, 

108. The perfect tenses may be known by their aux- 
iliary have or had^ which shows perfection. Thus, I 
have moved, I had moved, I shall have moved, are per- 
fect ; I move, I did move, I shall move, are imperfect. 

109. The indicative and potential modes have all the 
six tenses. The other modes have no distinctions, ex- 
cept as perfect or imperfect, 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

110. Every verb has three principal parts, (marked 
1, 2, 3, in the table,) from which all the other parts are 
formed. 

111. From the first principal part the imperfect tenses 
are formed, from the third part the perfect tenses. 

112. The second and third parts generally are alike. 
When they are formed by adding d or ed to the first 
part, the verb is said to be regular ; as, move, moved ; 
walk, walked. Otherwise the verb is called irregular; 
di^, find, found ; Heed, hied. 

113. Naming all the parts of a verb in their regular 
order, is called conjugating it. 



20 ETYMOLOGY. 

CO' . 






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w 






s 
o S 



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p^ - ^ 



^ 



^JD 



o o ^- 





H 




^ 


^ 


w 


^ 


w 


72 


w 


<i 


^ 


P^ 


^ 



tr ' ^ i/i t> t"" 



t^ 



-^ Eh 



^ < ^ u p^ <i P4. p Pq 5^- C ^ *^ 
^ g S ^ 



g-J 




o 


H 


H 


a 

< 


p^ 




<f 




CU 








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ffi" o o a g 

^ I ^ ^ ^ 

g ll-1 ill - - f 

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o » 

^ o i 

W ^ J 
> W <i 



ETYMOLOGY. 21 



Remarks. 



115. Any verb maybe conjugated by putting it instead of 
move in the foregoing table ; as, love or do love^ loved or did 
love, &c. 

116. But the verb he has several forms in the first two 
tenses : — Past, ivas, were ; Present, am, art, is, are. 

117. The tenses are frequently variable as to time, espec- 
ially in the potential mode ; as, ' You must go to-night ;' ' If I 
should go ;' ' We leave next week.' 

118. The auxiliaries shall and will, when they denote sim- 
plefutwity, belong to the indicative mode ; when they denote 
determination, they belong to the potential mode; as, 'I shall 
go;' *He will go;' indicative; 'I will go;' 'He shall go;' 
f)otential. 

119. The conjugation of the verb as exhibited in the table, 
is the common form. It will be perceived that the first two 
tenses have an additional form with do, did, called the em- 
phatic form of expression. 

120. To denote continued being or action, we join the im- 
perfect participle to different parts of the verb he; as, 'I am 
moving ;' ' To he moving.^ This is sometimes called the par- 
tidpial form of expression. 

121. To denote the receiving of an action, we join the paa- 
give participle to different parts of the verb he; as, '1 am 
moved ;' ' To be movedJ This is sometimes called the passim 
form of expression. 

122. The passive participle is generally united to the verb 
he, but should be parsed separately. It is perfect in form, but 
is often imperfect in meaning. An active participle is some- 
times used as passive ; as, ' The house is huilding,'' But this 
is best avoided. 



123. List of IrregiQar Verbs. 

(I.) The following have all the parts alike : rid, hurst, cast, 

cost, thrust, cut, shid, put, hit, spit, split, hurt, let, set, 

read, slued, shred, spread, knit r, heat r, heat [en], 

hid [den.] 
(2.) The following change the last letter to t to form ths 

second and third parts : lose, lend, rend, send, 'spend, 

hend r, huild r, gild r, gird r. 
(3.) The following add ^: deal, mean, dream r. 
(4.) The following change the vowels to e and add t : creep 

[crept,] sleep, keep, weep, feel, kneel, 
(5.) The following change the vowels to e: hleed [bled,] 

hreed, feed, speed, lead, meet, hold, sweat r. 
2 



22 ETYMOLOGY. 

(6.) The following change the vowels to o: shoot [shot,] 
win, abide, shine r, choose len,] freeze [en,] weave [en,] 
tread [en,] get [en], forget [en.] 
(7.) The following change the vowels to o and add c ; 

6r6aA: [broke-n,] speak, steal, 
(8.) The following change the vowels to u: spin [spun,] 
cling, fling, sling, sting, swing, wring, slink, shrink, dig, 
stick, strike, string r, hang r. But the following have 
a instead of u in the second part : imn [ran, run,] begin, 
drink ; and the following a or u : sink [sank or sunk, 
sunk,] swim, sing, ring, spring, 
(9.) The following change the vowel to ou: bind [bound,] 
find, grind, wind, 

(10.) The following drop e: chide [chid-den,] hide [en,] 
stride [en,] slide [en,] bite [en.] 

(11.) The following change the termination to ought: buy, 
[bought,] beseech, bring, fight, seek, think, work [wrought.] 

(12.) The following also are irregular: catch, caught r; teach, 
taught; pay, paid ; lay, laid; say, said; leave, left; 
reave, reft; bereave, bereft; sell, sold; tell, told; shoe, 
shod ; fiee, fied ; have, had ; hear, heard ; make, made ; 
sit, sat ; stand, stood ; clothe, clad r. 

(13.) The following have all the parts different: 

Drive, drove, driven ; so — ride, rise, arise, smite, write, 
stride, strive r. 

Swear, swore, sworn ; so — tear, wear, bear, (bore, borne, 
to carry ; but bare or bore, borne, to bring forth.) 
Fly, fiew, fiown ; so — grow, know, blow, throw v. 
Take, took, taken; so — shake, forsake. Come, came, 
come. Do, did, done. Go, went, gone. Be, was, been. 
Lie, lay, lain. Slay, slew, slain. See, saw, seen. Fall, 
fell, fallen ; Fat, eat or ate, eaten. Draw, drew, drawn. 
Cleave, clove or cleft, cloven or cleft (to split.) Bid, 
bade, bidden. Give, gave, given. 

(14.) Some reg. verbs have an irregular third part sometimes 
used, ending in 7i; as, Show, shown; lade, laden; wax, 
waxen; strow, strown ; mow, mown; sow, sown; swell, 
swollen ; grave, graven ; load, laden ; rive, riven ; saiv, 
sawn ; shape, sfiapen ; shave, shaven ; shear, shorn. 
Thus also crow sometimes has its second part crew, 
awake has awoke, dare has durst, 

(15.) In regular verbs ed is frequently, though improperly, 
contracted into t ; as, spelt for spelled, spilt for spilled. 
It is most allowable in the passive participle. 

(16.) Some verbs have irregular forms- not now in good use; 
as, holpen, bounden, gat, brake, ware, swang, holden, 
molten, quod. 



ETYMOLOGY. 23 

(17.) A few verbs are defective, that is, have no third part. 

Such are the auxiliaries may, might ; can, could ; sJiall, 

should ; ivill, would; and the verb ought, ought Quoth 

is used only in the second part, must in the first part, 

and wont as a passive participle. 

Note. Those words in the foregoing list which have an 

r, admit also of the regular form. Those with [en,] have that 

termination added to the third part, either always, or m some 

cases. 



IV. PARTICIiES, 

124. Particles are all less necessary words of different 
kinds, used to show the nice distinctions of meaning, in- 
cluding Adverbs, Conjunctions, Prepositions, and Inter- 
jections, 

I. ADVERBS. 

125. Adverbs are words added to verbs^ and some- 
times to other words, to qualify their meaning ; as, ' It 
now rains very violently.'' 

126. Adverbs maybe divided into different kinds, thus: 
(1.) Of time ; as, now, before, already, presently, often, 

when, ever, &c. 
(2.) Of place ; as, here, there, where, hither, thither, 

whither, hence, thence, whence, &c. 
(3.) Of number; as, once, twice, thrice, again, first, 

secondly, &c. 
(4.) Of assertion ; as, not, truly, indeed, perhaps, &c. 
(5.) Of cause ; as, why, wherefore, therefore, whence, 

how, &c. 
(6. Of manner ; as, ivell, ill, how, prudently, tdsely, 

greatly, &c. 
(7.) Of degree ; as, very, quite, exceedingly, so, too^ 

much, rather, &c. 

127. Many adverbs are formed from other words ; as, tvise- 
iy, herein, wlvenever, afoot, &c. 

128. A f^yif adverbs have degrees like descriptives : as, 
much, more, most; soon, sooner, soonest; little, less, least, Slc, 
But double degrees should be avoided. 



24 ETYMOLOGY. 

IL CONJUNCTIONS. 

129. Conjunctions are words which conjoin or connect 
words and sentences ; as, ' You and he did it, but not 
properly.' 

130. The following are the principal conjunctions : — 
and^ if^ tliat^ lotli^ then^ since ^ for^ because^ therefore., 
wherefore; but^ or^ nor^ as, than, lest, though, unless, 
except, save, either, neither, whether, yet, notwithstand- 
ing, nevertheless. 

131. When a word in a sentence has the effect both of a 
conjun-ction, and of an adverb, it may be called an adverbial 
conjunction, and qualifies both sentences ; as, ' He did it when 
he pleased.' , 

III. PREPOSITIONS. 

132. Prepositions are words placed before substantives 
to show their relation to other words ; as, ' He sat with a 
book in his hand.' 

133. The following are the most common preposi- 
tions : — of, by, at, for, from ; in, to, into ; on, upon ; 
loith, within, loithout ; over, above ; under, below, be- 
neath ; through, betiveen, among ; before, behind, after, 
beyond ; about, beside, against, across. 

134. The following also are prepositions : — amid or anddstf 
amongst, round or around, athwart, betwixt, concerning, during, 
except, excepting, maugre, notwithstanding, since, till or until, 
touching, toward or towards, throughout, underneath, 

IV. INTERJECTIONS. 

135. Interjections are words which express sudden 
emotions of the mind; as, Of oh! ah! alas! pish f 
avaunt ! lo ! hark ! yes ! no ! hail ! &c. 

136. Interjections were the first cries of man, before speech 
was invented ; so that in proportion as language becomes full 
and perfect, they disappear. They should be used very sel- 
dom and with care. 



ETYMOLOGY. 25 



Phrases. 

137. A phrase is the union of two or more words having 
the nature and construction of a single word, thus ; 

138. (i.) A substantive phrase consists of two or more words 
having the nature and construction of a single substantive ; as, 
' That you are guilty is evident.' ' She is handsome, and she 
knows lY.' ' I wish you to ride.^ 

139. (ii.) An adjective phrase consists of two or more words 
having the nature and construction of a single adjective; as, 
' A light blue color.' * The Jirst two stanzas.' 

140. (in.) A verbal phrase consists of two or more words 
havmg the nature and construction of a single verb ; as, ' It is 
to be-^ 'It appears to be.'' 

141. (iv.) An adverbial phrase consists of two or more words 
having the nature and construction of a single adverb ; as, at 
leasts not at all, by and by, the more, the better, methinks. 

142. (v.) A conjunctional phrase consists of two or more 
words having the nature and construction of a single conjunc- 
tion ; as, as if, as though, 

143. (vi.) A prepositional phrase consists of two or more 
words having the nature and construction of a single prepo- 
sition ; as, out of, over against, nearly in. 

144. (vii.) An inter jectional phrase consists of two or more 
words having the nature and construction of a single interjec- 
tion; as, 'Alas to me! I am undone.' 



Different uses of the same word. 

145. Many words may be used either as substantives, 
as adjectives, or as verbs ; as, ' A great calm,'^ ' A calm 
day.' ' To calm a storm.' 

146. Substantives, when they describe, become ad- 
jectives ; as, ivaterpail, sugar-loaf. 

147. Adjectives, when their substantives are under- 
stood, may become substantives ; as, ' The aged are se- 
date.' 'All is over.' 

148. When thus used, desaiptives are generally plural, and 
preceded by the ; few, mxiny, and all numerals, have a collec- 
tive sense ; and one, other, former^ latter, and comparatives, are 

2* 



26 ETYMOLOGY. 

Taried like substantives ; as, ^The good are beloved.* * Six is 
the half of twelve.^ ' The many are led on by thefeivJ * The 
little ones,'' Others^ letters^ superiors, 

149. Any word, when used as the name of itself, becomes 
a noun; as, ' To is a preposition.' 

150. An adverb or other part of speech, may become an in- 
terjection ; as, how ! really ! strange ! 

151. A preposition without a substantive becomes an ad- 
verb ; as, ' To ride abouV ' To give over all effort.' 

152. A participle sometimes becomes a preposition ; as, 
concerning^ notiviihstanding, bating, touching, 

153. An adverb is sometimes used as a noun; as, 'From 
there to here,^ ' It comes from above.'' 

154. The relative ivho is used as an interrogative ; and the 
preposition to is used as the sign of the infinitive. 

155. The words which, what, whichever, whatever, &lq,., may 
be either relative pronouns or adjectives; as, 'The thing 
ivhich.^ * Which thing.' 

156. The word that may be either a relative pronoun, an 
adjective, or a conjunction; as, 'He said that he should pun- 
ish that boy that did it.' 

157. The words else, only, ill, well, much, little, near, &c. 
may be either adjectives or adverbs; as, 'Who else was 
there ?' ' How else could I do ?' 

158. The words either, neither, and both, may be either ad- 
jectives or conjunctions; as, 'Both men.' 'He both eB.t and 
slept.' 

159. The word no may be either an adjective or an inter- 
jection ; as, ' Can no person go ? JVo ! it is impossible.* 

160. The word needs may be either a verb or an adverb ; 
as, 'He needs your help.' 'He must needs go through Sa- 
maria.' 

161. The words hut, as, well, yet, still, since, then, therefore, 
consequently, &c., may be either adverbs or conjunctions; 
as, ' He could but go, but he came back.' 

162. The words for and but may be either conjunctions or 
prepositions ; as, ' I shall not strive for it, for it is wrong.' 

Derivation. 

163. All words are either primitive or derivative, A prim- 
itive word is one which cannot be reduced to any simpler 
word in the language; as, good, content A derivative word 
is one which is derived from another word ; as, goodness, con- 
Untment, Words are derived from others in three ways, viz. 



ETYMOLOGY. 27 

164. (i.) Many words are formed by uniting together other 
words ; as, penknife.) notivitJistanding, anotlier, neither, none^ 
myself, whoever, whenever. Such words are called compounds, 
and when the parts are inseparable are called permanent com- 
pounds, 

165. Thus when a substantive is used to describe another 
substantive, the two words are sometimes united by a hyphen 
into one ; as, pen- knife, ink-stand. 

166. Thus also many adverbs are formed by uniting words ; 
as, hereof, thereto, whereby, therefore [there for.] Many of 
these are not much used. 

167. Thus also many adverbs are formed by prefixing a, 
(meaning at, on, &c.,) to nouns ; as, ashore, afoot, asleep. 

168. Thus also many words are formed by adding so, ever, 
and soever to other words ; as, whoso, whichever, whenever, 
whei'esoevtr. 

J69. Thus also many verbs (and other words,) are formed 
by prefixing prepositions to other words ; as, uphold, intend, 
overlook. The same effect is produced by putting the prepo- 
sition (as an adverb,) after the verb ; as, to fall on, to cast up. 
The prepositions are frequently inseparable ; as, unthinking, 
predispose. 

170. (ii.) Many words are formed by adding new termina- 
tions to other words, or by changing the original termina- 
tions ; as, grand, grandeur ; splendor, splendid. 

171. Thus many feminine substantives are formed from 
masculines by changing the termination, generally into ix or 
€ss ; as, administrator, administratrix ; priest, priestess, 

172. Thus also many substantives are formed by adding 
ness, ment, dom, ric, hood, ship, age, ity, ite, ate, ret, cy, to 
other words ; as, goodness, contentment, kingdom, bishopric, 
piresthood, friendship, hermitage. 

173. Thus also many adjectives are formed from substan- 
tives by adding some, ly, y, full, less, and ous ; as, gladsome, 
manly, healthy, joyful, joyous, joyless. In this case, ful, y, 
ous, and some, imply abundance; less, want; and ly, like- 
ness. 

174. Thus also some verbs are formed from other words 
by adding a termination ; as short, to shorten ; like, to liken ; 
glad, to gladden, 

175. Thus also some nouns are formed from verbs by 
changing the termination ; as, to visit, visiter; to love, lover; 
to walk, walker, 

176. Thus also many adverbs of manner, and some others, 
are formed from adjectives, by adding ly, or changing le into 
ly ; as, wisely, gently. 



28 ETYMOLOGY, 

177. (iii.\ Many words are formed by changing very much 
the shape of other words ; as, long, length ; strong, strength ; 
grass, graze ; glass, glazier. In this manner words are formed 
from other languages ; as, Etymology from the Greek etymon 
logos, pronoun from the Latm pro nomen, parlance from the 
French parler. Thus also, a great part of our present English 
words, are derived from the ancient Saxon and other languages 
from which ours originally sprung ; as, an from ane (one,) if 
from gifan (grant.) So that, though many words are now con- 
sidered primitive, very few will be found to be really so, when 
traced to their origin. 

178. Note. Derivative words often differ much from the 
meaning to which their primitives would seem to lead; as, 
therefore, understand, cast un 



II. SYNTAX. 



179. Syntax treats of sentences, and the proper re- 
lation of words in them. 



SEI¥TEI«CES. 



180. A sentence consists of any number of words 
properly arranged. 

181. (i.) The subject of a sentence is that which is 
said to be or to act, and consists of a single substantive 
or of two or more substantives connected by and : as, 
' The boy studies.' ' The boy and girl are diligent.' (50.) 

182. (ii.) The attribute of a sentence is the being or 
action which is attributed or applied to the subject, and 
consists of a single finite verb, (or sometimes of the verb 
be with another word;) as, ^The boy studies,'' * The 
boy and girl are diligent,'^ 

183. (hi.) All the words and clauses in a sentence 
which describe the subject, may together be called the 
description of the subject ; as, ' The diligent boy stud- 
ies.' ' The man of true honor is always respected.' 

184. (iv.) All the words and clauses in a sentence 
which explain the attribute, may together be called the 
explanation of the attribute ; as, ' The boy carefully 
studies Ms lesson.'^ ' It is very unhealthy in the city the 
present season.'* 

185. Thus all the parts of a sentence are four ; the 



30 SYNTAX. 

subject with its description^ and the attribute with its 
explanation. But any sentence is perfect^ if it have 
only a subject and an attribute. If either of these is 
wanting, the sentence is called imperfect. Thus, — ' The 
dog barks^'' is perfect ; ' The towering hills of my native 
land^^ is imperfect. 

186. A perfect sentence is either simple or compound, 

187. (i.) A simple sentence is one which has but one 
subject and one attribute ; as, ' The boy studies.' ' The 
boy and girl are diligent, 

188. A sentence may assume five forms, affirmative^ nega- 
tive^ interrogative^ subjunctive^ imperative. (96, 97.) 

189. (i) An affirmative sentence simply affirms, (ii.) A nega- 
tive sentence denies, and is formed by inserting a not in an 
affirmative sentence ; as, * I can go.' ' 1 cannof go.' 

190. (hi.) An interrogative sentence is used to ask a ques- 
tion, and its subieet foUowi th^ attribute j as, ^Can I go?' 

*Whiff>^« — Acjf fK-v, ? 

. . „....wi got^^w uiiuU : 

191. (iv.) A subjunctive sentence is subjoined to another 
sentence. It generally expresses uncertainty, and contains a 
conjunction if though, &c. ; as, 'If I could go.' 

192. (v.) An imperative sentence commands, exhorts, or 
permits ; and its subject generally follows the attribute, 
which is in the imperative mode ; as, ' Go thou.' ' Come ye.' 
All the other kinds of sentences may be either indicative or 
potential. 

193. (ii.) A compound sentence consists of two or 
more simple sentences united, usually by conjunctions ; 
as, ' Life is short and death draws near.' 

194. One sentence is sometimes contained within another, 
as a description or explanation of it ; as, ' The man who did 
this, ought to suffer.' This constitutes what may be called a 
complex sentence. 

195. The members of a sentence are the longer portions 
separated by colons or semicolons, clauses are smaller por- 
tions separated by commas ; as, ' The ox knoweth his owner, 
and the ass his master's crib ; but Israel doth not know, my 
people doth not consider.' Here are two members, each of 
which consists of two clauses, 

196. Separating a sentence into its parts, as above, is 



SYNTAX. 31 

called analyzing it, and should precede the parsing of a 
sentence. 

197. Parsing consists in stating all that we know 
concerning the grammar of a word, and its relation to 
other words. 



REIiAT10I¥S OF l¥ORBS. 

198. In uniting words into sentences, we should give 
them such relations to each other as to convey exactly 
the idea intended. These relations, being founded upon 
the nature of the human mind, are nearly the same in 
all languages, and are established by the usage of the 
best writers in each particular tongue. The following 
are the principles derived from the established practice 
of English writers, 

I. RELATIONS OF SUBSTANTIVES. 

199. The relation of a substantive in a sentence is 
called its case. There may be reckoned in English 

four different cases, or relations of a substantive, called 
the subjective^ the possessive^ the ohjective^ and the ab- 
solute cases. 

EULE I. 

200. The subjective case denotes the subject 
OF A VERB ; as, ' The boy studies.' ' The boy and girl 
are diligent.' 

Rule II. 

201. The possessive case denotes a possessor, 

AND describes THE THING POSSESSED ; aS, ' JoSCpWs 

hat.' ' Your book.' 



S2 SYNTAXo 

Rule III. 

202. The objective case denotes the object of 
A PREPOSITION OR TRANSITIVE VERB ; as, ' George stud- 
his lesson in scliooV 

Rule IV. 

203. The absolute case denotes a substantive 
when alone, or independent of other words; as, 
' The crops failing, the farmers — what will become of 
them ?' 

Of this case there are four uses : 

204. (i.) With a participle, to denote some attending cir- 
cumstance ; as, * He failings who shall succeed ?' 

205. (ii.) To denote a direct address ; as, ' Come here, 
John,^ 

206. (hi.) With an exclamation ; as, * Oh horrors P * Oh 
deep enchanting prelude to repose.' 

207. (iv.) To denote a 'mere name or title; as, *Ruleiv,' 
* Gadj a troop shall overcome him.' Bible, 

Form of tlie cases. 

208. Nouns have the same form in all their cases, 
except the possessive^ which is formed by adding an 
apostrophe and 5 [\s] to them ; as, subjective, &c., 
man^ possessive, man'^s ; plural, subjective, &c., mew, 
possessive, men^s. 

209. But if the plural end in 5, or the singular in ss, ce, 
and sometimes s, the apostrophe alone is generally added ; 
as, horses^ heads, for peace* sake, Achilles^ wrath, 

210. A complex possessive, or different possessives con- 
nected, have the sign upon the last word only; as, ' William, 
Jlenry, and Edward'^ s boat.' ' The king oj England's crown.' 

211. Sometimes we find the possessive of a possessive; 
as, 'My wife's hrother^s son.' But it is better avoided; thus, 
' The son of my wife's brother.' 

212. When the adjectives one, other, former, and latter, are 
used as substantives, they may have the possessive case ; as, 
one''s inter'cst ; others' concerns, 

213. The '5 is a contraction of his, and was formerly writ- 
ten in full ; as, ' William Russell his book.' 



SYNTAX. 33 

214. Most of the j^ronouns have their possessive and 
objective cases irregular in form, as follows: 

Singiilar. Plural. 

SUB. &AB. POS. OBJ. SUB.&AB. POS. OBJ. 

— 7, my, me ; we, our, us. 



J- 



^ ( COM. you, your, you ; you, ) 
2. < ^1 ii ii \ your, you. 

« i ( SOL. thou, thy, thee ; ye, ) ^ 

I j r MAS. he, his, him ; \ 

P^ I 3. < FEM. she, her, her ; > they, their, them. 
(_ f NEU. it, its, it ; } 

% ^ COM. GEN. loho, \ ^ Ciohom; who, \ § (who. 

•^ I -x- 7. ?> ...7,,-_7, . ...7.---X >- J lohich. 

( that. 



% ^ COM. GEN. loho, \ ^ C 10 horn; who, \ 
-g <J ANY GEN. which, > g" \ wMch ; which, > 
© [^ ANY GEN. that, ) S^ \ that ; that, ) 



Note. — Telling all the different forms of a substantive, 
as above, is called declining it. 

215. Instead of repeating a possessive case, and the noun 
it describes, we generally use the words mine, thine, hers, ours, 
theirs, to represent both. These may therefore be called 
compound possessive pronouns, in the subjective or objective 
case ; as, ' This is my book, and that too is mine,' (my book.) 

216. Mine and thine are sometimes used for my and thy, be- 
fore a vowel sound ; as, mine honor. 

217. When the possessive cases my, our, &c., come before 
the noun self, the two words are united into one, which may 
be called a compound personal pronoun ; as myself, ourselves, 
&LC. But we always write himself, itself, themselves, instead of 
hisself, itsself theirselves. 

EULE V. 

218. Substantives in the same relation must be 
IN the same case. 

219. (i.) Substantives connected by conjunctions are 
in the same relation ; as, ' The hoys and girls study ;' 
' He or Mi^ friend did it.' 

220. But we always use whom after than ; as, * Washington, 
than whom,^ &c. 

3 



34 SYNTAX. 

221. (ii.) Substantives applied to the same thing, and 
introduced in the same manner, are in the same relation ; 
as, ' Cicero^ the orator^ lived in Rome ;' ' 7, John^ study.' 

222. Substantives thus coming together in the same case, 
are said to be in apposition. 

223. SubiBtantives connected hy conjunctions sometimes are 
in apposition; as, ^ Thdit philosopher and poet was banished;' 
^Love, and love only, is,' &c. 

224. A singular is sometimes in apposition with a plural, 
to explain it ; ' They every one were there ;' ' They love each 
other :' ' Ye are one another's joy.' 

225. A substantive in the possessive case may be in appo- 
sition without the sign ; as, ' His brother Philip's wife.' 

226. (hi.) Substantives applied to the same thing, and 
connected by an intransitive verb, are in the same rela- 
tion ; as, ' He is the Cicero of his age ;' ' Man walks a 
slave,'' 

EULE VI. 

227. A PRONOUN MUST AGREE WITH ITS ANTECEDENT 
OR SUBSEQUENT IN PERSON, NUMBER, AND GENDER ; aS, 

* He who did it, knew his duty.' 

228. Who relates only to persons, which to animals and 
things ; but that may relate to persons, animals, or things ; as, 
' The man who ;' *The dog which ;' ' The thing that.' 

229. Animals and things are frequently personified^ or rep- 
resented as persons ; and then the pronouns must be applied 
accordingly; as, ' The 5W7i rises in all ^5 splendor.' 

230. As there is no personal pronoun of common gender in 
the third person singular, the other genders are made to sup- 
ply its place ; as, ' Whoever does his duty will prosper ;' * Doth 
the hawk stretch out her wings ?' ' We saw the deer, and killed 

it: 

231. When a pronoun is preceded by different persons, it' 
may agree with either, according to the sense ; as, 'Jam the 
man who command^ or who commands^ 

232. Throughout a sentence, the same pronoun should be 
applied to the same person or thing; as, *Iff/iGW wilt come, 
thou wilt be well received.' 



SYNTAX. 35 



II. RELATIONS OF ADJECTIVES. 
Rule VII. 

233. EVEKY ADJECTIVE MUST AGREE (ill number) WITH 
ITS SUBSTANTIVE, EXPRESSED OR UNDERSTOOD ; aS, ^ A 

large^ sweet apple ;' ' Each (individual) loves its like'^ (in- 
dividual.) 

234. Adjectives sometimes belong to other adjectives ; as, 
' A lis;lit blue color ;' ' The first two stanzas.' 

235. Much never refers to number, and such never to de- 
gree. The following expressions are incorrect: 'Much men 
were present;' * Such great houses.' Hither and neither always 
refer to one of two things, every to one of more than two^ and 
each to one of any number. The following are incorrect; 
* Either of the three ;' ' Every one of the two.' 

236. This, these, and latter, always refer to the things near- 
est or last mentioned ; that, those, and former, to the things 
farthest or first mentioned ; as, ' Self-love is ruled by reason ; 
that makes men active ; this, active to some good purpose.' 

237. The comparative compares two things, the superlative 
more than two, and they are both connected by of to the latter 
term of comparison, which must include the former ; as, ' He 
is the taller of the two, but you are the tallest ofalU OtherwisQ 
the comparative compares any number of things, and is con- 
nected by than to the latter term of comparison, which must 
not include the former ; as, ' He is shorter than all the restJ^ 

238. Definitives are joined only to common nouns^ or to. 
nouns used as such, because other substantives are sufficiently 
definite without them. But definitives which do not imply 
number, may be joined to abstract nouns ; as much virtue, such 
viHue, Judgment and practice must teach when nouns are to 
receive a definitive. 



III. RELATIONS OF VERBS. 

Rule VIII. 
239. Every verb must agree (in person and number) 
WITH ITS SUBJECT ; as, ' The boy studies ;' ' The boy and 
girl are diligent.' 



36 



SYNTAX. 



240. (i.) To agree with thou^ the indicative and poten- 
tial modes (or their first auxiliary) must be made to end 
in St or t ; as, 'Thou do5^ or diidst walk;' 'thou has/5 or 
had5^ walked ;' 'thou shak, wik, mus^, mights^, coulds^, 
woulds^, or shoulds^ walk, or have walked.' 

241. (ii.) To agree with the third person singular^ the 
indicative present (or its auxiliary) must be made to end 
in 5 or th ; as, ' He (&c.) walk-s, or walke^A, does walk, or 
do^/i walk, has walked, or ha^A walked.' 

242. But the verb ought does not vary for the third person ; 
nor does the verb neec? always; as, 'He ought io go;' 'He 
need not go.' 

243. But the verb he has its first two imperfect tenses 
irregular, thus : Past, I loas^ thou wast^ he {Sfc.) was^ in 
other cases were ; Present, I am^ thou art^ he {Sfc) is^ in 
other cases are. The emphatic form is not used, and the 
rest of the imperfect is regularly he. 

244. Had is sometimes used for would have, and were for 
tvould be, or should be if doubt is implied ; as, ' It had been 
well for us, had we gone ;' ' It ivere a pity were he thus dis- 
graced. 

245. Every subject should have an attribute, and every at- 
tribute a subject, expressed or plainly implied. The following 
is incorrect : ' He, where is he ?' 

246. If a verb have a subject before, and another after it, it 
may sometimes agree with the latter instead of the former ; 
as, ' A great cause wei^e the restraints,^ &c. When a verb fol- 
lows several subjects, it should agree with the nearest ; as, 
'I ovihon didst it: {293.) 

247. Always in the use of verbs, the relations of time 
must be duly observed ; thus, ' The Lord gave, and the Lord 
hath taken away ;' not, ' The Lord hath given, and the Lord hath 
taken away.' 

Rule IX. 

248. Infinitives are used as substantives, but may 
HAVE OBJECTS LIKE OTHER MOPES ; as, ' To injure others 
is wrong.' 



SYNTAX. 37 

249. (i.) An infinitive may be a singular subject ; as, 
' To lie is base.' 

250. (ii.) An infinitive, with or without a substantive, 
may be the ohject of a transitive verb ; as, 'I wish to 
ride ;' ' I wish you to ride.'' 

251. When an infinitive is the object of hid, feel, hear, 
let, make, see, dare, (to venture,) and a few other verbs, the sign 
to is generally omitted ; as ' 1 hade him do it,' But after the 
passive participle the to should be used ; as, ' He was hidden to 
doit: 

252. When an infinitive refers to a time subsequent to that 
of the preceding verb, it should be imperfect not perfect; thus, 
* I expected you to go f not, ' I expected you to have goneJ 

253. (hi.) An infinitive may be the ohject of a prepo- 
sition, expressed or understood ; as, ' He went for to 
worship ;' ' I wish ybr you to ride ;' ' He is ahout to go ;' 
' I will labor (for) to do it: 

254. Infinitives which follow intransitive verbs, nouns, or 
adjectives, are generally the objects of prepositions expressed 
or understood. The preposition for was formerly expressed 
before the infinitive, but is now generally understood. 

255. (iv.) An infinitive may be in the absolute case ; 
as, ' To tell the truth, I was there.' 

256. The copula to he may describe the subject of an in- 
transitive verb, thus forming a verhal phrase, (140,) which agrees 
with that subject ; as, ' It appears to be right ;' ' He thinks to he 
respected.' (See also 298.) 

Rule X. 

257. Participles are used as substantives or de- 
schiptives, but may have objects like other modes ; 
as, ' I am studying granwiar: 

258. When an active participle is followed by of, it should 
be preceded by a definitive or possessive case, but not other- 
wise ; as, ' The taking of the city ;' ' Much depends on observ- 
ing this rule.' 

259. Some passive participles, like their active, may have 
an object; as, 'He was asked his opinion ;' 'I was desired to 

go: 

3* 



38 SYNTAX. 

IV. RELATIONS OF PARTICLES. 

Rule XI . 

260. Adverbs qualify verbs ; adverbs of degree 

MAY QUALIFY ADJECTIVES AND OTHER ADVERBS ; aS, ' Very 

good boys study very diligently J* 

261. The verb which an adverb qualifies, is frequently un- 
derstood ; as, *But [I say] truly, they will come ;' *Say first, of 
God [who is] above;' ^ Away ! old man.' 

262. An adverb sometimes qualifies a preposition ; as near- 
ly in, almost across ; and sometimes a noun ; as, 'He ran al- 
most a mile ;' ' The almost Christian ;' ' Things here are mine.' 

263. In poetry, the termination Zy is frequently dropped from 
an adverb, making it like the adjective from which it is deri- 
ved ; as, ' Wild play the winds about his mountain home.' This 
should not take place in prose. But exceedingly should al- 
ways lose the ly before a word ending in ly ; as, exceeding 
wisely. 

264. Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative ; as, 
''JVor did he not do it ;' that is, 'He did it.' 

265. When motion is implied, the words hither, thither, 
whither, are preferable to here, there, where. The following are 
incorrect ; ' Come here ;' ' Go there,'^ 

266. A verb which signifies merely being, or a state of be- 
ing, should generally have an adjective rather than an adverb 
connected with it ; as, ^ He is cold :^ ' He looks coM.' But we 
say, 'He looks coldly upon it;' as looks here denotes action. 

Rule XII. 

267. Conjunctions connect words and sentences of 
THE SAME KIND ; as, ' John and William are coming, hut 
they will soon return.' 

268. Both is always followed by and, and lest by the po- 
tential mode. Than is always preceded by a comparative, or 
the word else, other, or rather. The conjunctions if, though, al- 
though, unless, save, because, since, &c. are generally prefixed to 
subjunctive sentences, to connect them to the main sentence, 
without which they cannot be used. 

269. Some particles correspond to each other, so that if 
one is used, the other is expressed or understood ; whether — or ; 
neither — nor ; such — as ; such — that ; as — as ; as — so ; so — as; 
so — that ; though — yet ; both — and. In this case, the two con- 



SYNTAX. 39 

junctions together connect, and, if possible, the same words must 
follow each; thus, ' Either the boy or the girl;' not ^Either 
the boy or girl.' 

270. Verbs connected by conjunctions should generally be 
of the same mode and tense ; or the subject should be repeat- 
ed. The following is incorrect : * Professing regard, and to act 
differently, discovers a base mind.' 

Rule XIII. 

271. Prepositions show the relation between 
THEIR OBJECTS AND OTHER WORDS ; as, ' He sat icUJi a 
book in his hand,'' 

272. The prepositions /o, into, unto^ &c., imply motion, and 
are opposed to from ; at, in, within, &c., imply situation ; of 
implies oiigin or possession ; for implies purpose ; with implies 
connection or means; % implies cause; between has reference 
to two objects; among or amidst to a greater number. 

273. Particular words require to be followed by particular 
prepositions, and generally the same preposition should follow 
a derivative word as follows its primative. We should not 
say, ' Reconciling himself with the king,' but, 'to the king.' 

Rule XIV. 

274. Interjections, AND the words connected with 

THEM, ARE INDEPENDENT OF THE REST OF THE SENTENCE : 

as, ' Wo to me ! I am undone."' 



Position. 

275. In the common, natural position of words, the 
subject is placed before the attribute, the adjective before 
its substantive, the definitive before the descriptive, the 
pronoun after its antecedent, and the preposition before 
its object ; as, ' The great oak which stands on the hill.' 

276. But in imperative and interrogative sentences, and in 
many other cases, the subject /oZZoit?5 the verb or the first aux- 



40 . SYNTAX. 

iliary ; as, ' Will you go ?' ' Go thou f ' Were 1 there ;' ' Here 
am /.' 

277. In many other respects the common order may be de- 
viated from ; as, * A number large enough ;' ' Many a man ;' 
' Whom you see, him respect.' 

278. When two qualities belong to the same noun, the more 
distinguishing should be made the nearer; as, ' A g-ooc/ old 
man ;' not, ' An old good man.' 

279. No word should ever be placed between the sign to 
and the infinitive mode. The followiiig is incorrect: 'To 
willingly do it.' 

280. Words nearly related should be placed as near to each 
other as possible ; a relative pronoun to its antecedent, an ad- 
verb to the word qualified, a possessive case to the word de- 
scribed, a preposition to its object, &c. The following are 
incorrect : ' It is reported to-morrow that the king will come.' 
' John's (that I spoke of ) book.' 

281. Transposition is a change of arrangement in 
the parts of a sentence, and is very common, especialty 
in poetry; as, 

' Achilles' wrath, to Greece the direful spring 
Of woes unnumbered, Heavenly Goddess, sing.' 
Transposed. ' Heavenly Goddess ! sing Achilles' wrath, 
the direful spring of unnumbered woes to Greece.' 



Ellipsis. 

282. Ellipsis is the omission of any of the words ne- 
cessary to the full construction of a sentence. The fol- 
lowing are the most common cases : ^ 

283. To avoid repetition, many words are generally 
omitted in uniting sentences, and in similar cases ; as, 
' The boys read and \tJie hoys'] write.' ' A fine garden 
and \^ajine\ orchard.' 

284. After the collective nouns dozen, hundred, few, many, 
&c., of is frequently understood ; as, ' A hundred [of] sheep ;' 
' Every hundred [of] years constitutes a century;' 'A great 
many [of] men.' But when a pronoun follows, the of is always 
expressed ; as, 'A great many of them.' (148.) 



SYNTAX. 41 

285. The time, place, direction, quantity, &c., are frequently 
in the objective, with a preposition understood; as, 'He is 
coming [to] home [on] to-day.' 

286. A transitive verb is frequently followed by two objec- 
tives, one of them being the object of a preposition understood ; 
as, 'He lent [to] me some money ;' 'He asked [from] me the 
news.' 

287. The antecedent of a pronoun is sometimes understood ; 
as, ' [He] who steals my purse steals trash,' 

288. Adjectives and possessive cases frequently belong to 
substantives understood ; as, ' The [river] Thames ;' ' Turn to 
the right ' [hand] ; ' At the Alderman's [house.] ' (147.) 

289. There are generally many words understood in the an- 
swer to a question; as, 'Who was there?' 'John' [was there.] 

290. After the adjectives ivorth and worthy, a preposition is 
frequently understood ; as, ' It is worthy [of] your regard ;' 
' It is worth [ — ] a dollar.' 

291. After the words like, unlike, and near, to is frequently 
understood ; ' This is like [to] that, but it is not near [to] it.' 

292. The subject of the imperative mode is generally un- 
derstood ; as, ' Guide [thou] my lonely way.' 

293. When subjects are connected by or- or nor, the verb is 
generally understood after all but the last ; as, ' He or she did 
it.' 

294. The auxiliaries may, can, should, &c., are frequently 
understood ; as, ' [May] soon dawn the day of peace.' The 
mode of the verb should not then be mistaken. 

295. In subjunctive sentences, the conjunction or the auxil- 
iary is frequently understood ; as, ' Were I there ;' that is, ' If 
I were there;' 'If thou [shalt] go.' The auxiliary is best 
omitted when both doubt and futurity are implied, but not 
otherwise. 

296. When a substantive is absolute with a participle, some 
of the words may be understood ; as, ' [We] generally speaking, 
they are poor;' '[He being] conscious of his strength, nothing 
was feared.' 

297. After the adverbs off, up, down, &c., a preposition is 
frequently understood ; as, ' He jumped off [from] the fence, 
and went up [over] the hill.' 

298. After the conjunctions than, as, but, &c., some words 
are generally understood ; as, ^ I am as tall as you ' [are] ; ' I 
am taller than he ' [is] ; ' Will you be so good as to comeT 
[implies]] 'He knew better than to do that' [is]', 'Such as 
[those are who] prefer it ;' ' We have more than [that is which] 
will suffice ;'^/He acted as [he would act] if he were mad.' 

299. Adverbs frequently qualify verbs understood. (261.) 
The sign to of the infinitive is frequently understood. (251.) 



42 SYNTAX. 



Tlie Three Errors. 

300. (I.) Using too few words, or improper ellipsis, espe- 
cially of words which serve to connect ; as, ' Who is not 
convinced [that] he must die ?' ' I scarcely know of anything 
[which] would suit me better.' 

301. (II.) Using too many words, or tautology ; as, ^ A board 
of six feet long ;' * But and if that evil servant,' &c. 

302. Thus one word is sometimes improperly used with 
another which implies that word ; as, from whence ; t® whith- 
er; return 6ac^; converse together; fall c^ow^n; enter m ; first 
of all; new beginning; 'They returned hack again to the 
same city from whence they came forth.^ This last sentence 
should be, 'They returned to the city whence they came.' 

303. (III.) Using the wrong words ; as, had rather^ for would 
rather ; had better, for would better ; go past, for go by ; ruler, 
for rule ; them,^ for those ; lest, ivhat, or hoiv, for that ; firstly, for 

first ; good deal, for great deal ; to let, for to be let, &c. Thus 
also, some confound ever and 7iever, later and latter, suchB.ndso, 
further and farther, no and not, effect and affect, &c. 

304. Thus also, adjectives and adverbs are sometimes con- 
founded ; as, 'Afar country;' for,' A distant country,'^ 

305. Thus also, transitive and intransitive verbs are some- 
times confounded ; as, lie and lay, sit a.nd set, learn and teach, 
grow and cultivate, 

306. Thus also, errors are committed in the use of the dif- 
ferent parts of irregular verbs; as, 'He begun,'' for 'He be- 
gan ;' ' I done it,' for ' I did it.' 

307. When different methods of expression may be used, 
that should be adopted which will sound best, and most clearly 
convey the sense. We should say, 'The severe distress of the 
king's son ;' not, ' The severity of the distress of the son of the 
king.' We should say, 'He reads |and writes, but does not 
cipher ;' not, ' He readeth and writeih, but doth not cipher.' 



III. ORTHOGRAPHY. 

308. Orthography teaches the correct writmg of the 
language by means of established signs. 

LETTERS. 

309. K letter is a written sign used to represent some 
simple sound of the human voice. 

310. Human or articulate sounds are produced by an emis- 
sion of voice through the mouth, modified in many cases by 
the action of the lips, teeth, tongue, &c., which are called the 
organs of speech, 

311. There are in the English language about thirty- 
five simple sounds, and by different combinations of these, 
all words are expressed. 

312. These thirty -five simple sounds are represented 
by twenty-four letters only, as some letters represent more 
than one sound. 

313. These thirty-five simple sounds may be divided 
into vowel and consonant sounds. 

314. (i.) The vowel sounds are those which can be 
perfectly uttered by themselves. They are thirteen in 
number, and are represented by the letters a, «, i, o, w, 
and sometimes w and y, 

315. The vowel sounds are produced by an emission of 
voice through the mouth, without any interruption in its course. 
They may be divided into longy short, and open vowels. 

316. (i.) The long vowels are uttered with the mouth near- 
ly closed, the sound being prolonged. They are four, a? e? > 
u long, as heard in the words fate, mete, note, tube. 



44 OETHOGRAPHY. 

31.7. (n.) The short vowels are uttered with the mouth near- 
ly closed, the sound being cut short. - They are five, a, e, i, 6? 
fi short, as heard in the words fat, met, pin, not, tub. 

318. (ill.) The open vowels are uttered w^ith the mouth 
opened more widely, the sound being somewhat prolonged. 
They are four a, e, 6, u open, as heard in the words far, err, or, 
full. They are frequently followed by the letter r, into whose 
sound they slide. 

319. (ii.) The consonant sounds are those which cannot 
be uttered unless joined to a vowel. They are twenty-two 
in number, and are represented by the letters Z>, c, cZ, /, 
g, /i, y, ^, Z, m, n^ p^ q^ r, 5, t^ z?, x^ %, and sometimes w 
and y, 

320. The consonant sounds are produced by an emission of 
voice through the mouth, with more or less interruption from 
the organs of speech. They may be divided into labials, den- 
tals^ palatals, nasals, Unguals, and the asperate. 

321. The labials are produced by the interruption of the 
lips, and are six in number, b, p, f, v, m, and %v, as heard in the 
words bib, pap, fife, valve, mum, wo, 

322. The dentals are produced by the interruption of the 
teeth, and are eight in number, d, t, th soft, th hard, sh, zJi, s, z, 
as heard in the words did, trot, this, thin, shape, azure, stress, 
craze, 

323. The palatals are produced by the interruption of the 
tongue against the palate, and are three in number, g hard, ^, 
y, as heard in the words gag, kick, yet, 

324. The nasals are produced by the interruption of the 
voice so as to pass through the nose, and are two in number, n 
and ng, as heard in the words nun and sing. 

325. The Unguals are produced by the interruption of the 
tongue bent upwards, and are two in number, I and r, as heard 
in the v/ords lull and roar. They have a peculiar facility of 
uniting with other vowels before them ; as, bl, cl,fl, gl, pi, rl, si, 
hr, cr, dr,fr, gr, pr, tr, 

326. The aspirate is the letter A, which is produced by sim- 
ply breathing hard before other sounds ; as, at, hai, 

Remarks. 

327. W and y are consonants at the beginning of syllables, 
and vowels elsewhere. W, when a vowel, is silent or sounds 
like u, and y sounds like short i or long e. 

328. Such consonants as can be sounded imperfectly with- 
out a vowel, are called semi-vowels ; such as cannot be sounded 
at all without a vowel, are called mutes. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 45 

329. A compound sound is the union of two or more simple 
sounds. Such are the following: Compound i or y has the 
sound of d-e, as in pine, rhyme — compound u has the sound of 
e-^, as in mute — oi or oy has the sound of d-e, as in boil, hoy — 
ou or ow has the sound of d-ii, as in sound, how, Qw (which 
are always together,) have the sound of ku or k, as in queen, 
opaque, Xhas the sound of ks or 8;s, as in six, example — Ch 
has the sound of tsh or k, as in church, chorus — / or soft g, 
has the sound of dzh, as in judge, 

330. Some letters sometimes have the sound of others. 
Thus a sometimes sounds like 6, as in call ; au like o, d, as in 
hauthoy, laurel ; c like k, as in can ; c like s, as in cent, (this is 
always the case with c before e, i, or y ;) ch like sh, as in chaise ; 
d like t, as in stuffed ; e like a, i, u, as in sergeant, England ; 
eau like 6, as in heau ; ei, ey, like a, as in vein, convey ; eo like 
u, as in dungeon ; f, ph, like v, as in of, Stephen ; g like j, as 
in giant, (this is generally the case with g before e, i, ory ;) 
gh, ph, like f, as in laugh, Philip ; i like e, u, as in machine, 
first ; ia like ya, as in fiilial ; n like rig*, as in thank ; o like 
u, a, as in move, son ; oo like u, ii, u, as in room, hlood, good ; 
p like h, as in cuphoard ; s like z, as in his ; t like ch, as in 
nature ; t, s, c, like sA, as in nation, invasion, ocean ; u like e, 
t, as in hury, busy ; ue like eu, as in hue ; wh like to, as in 
when ; x like z, as in Xanthus, 

331. Letters are sometimes entirely ^iVen^; thus, i, it, ti?, ^, 
silent after cr, as in pail, taught, hawl, pay ; a, o, i, silent before 
e, as in (enigma, JcRtus, grief; e silent in a final syllable, as in 
open; e silent always at the end of a word, unless it is the only 
vowel, as in me, and used thus to lengthen or soften the syllable, 
as in rag, rage, pin, pine ; a, i, o, y, silent after e, as in appear, 
people, s^ize, key ; e silent before a, as in hear ; a, e, silent after 
i, as in carriage, die ; ie silent before u, as in lieu ; a, e, u, w, o, 
silent after o, as in hoat, hroad, doe, though, cough, brought, snow, 
door ; o silent before u, as in enough, youth ; i silent after u, £ts 
in juice ; u silent before a, e, i,y, as in guard, guest, guide, buy ; 
ue silent after q, g, as in antique, dialogue ; h silent with an- 
other consonant, as in climb, debtor ; c silent, as in victuals ; ch 
silent, as in schism; g silent before n, as in gnash; h silent 
after g,r, f , a vowel, and sometimes at the beginning of words, 
as in ghost, rheum, Thomas, hah, hour ; k silent before n, as in 
knell ; n final silent after m, as in hymn ; p silent before s, t, as 
in psalter, tempt ; p/i silent, as in phthisic: s silent, as in i>Zc, 
viscount : w silent before r and after o as in wrist, grow. 

332. A syllable consists of one or more letters, forming 
a simple or compound sound, and pronounced by a single 
impulse of the voice ; as, a, an ant, 

4 



46 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

383. Two vowels coming together in a syllable, are called 
a dipthong ; as hail^ heat If both vowels are sounded, as ot, 
ow, ew, and a few others, it is called a proper dipthong^ other- 
wise, an improper dipthong. Three vowels coming in the same 
syllable, are called a tripthong ; as, heau- 

334. When vowels come together, not in the same syllable, 
they may be distinguished by a dieresis, {" ) as, aerial, coope- 
rate. 



II. WORDS. 

335. A word consists of one syllable, or more, pro- 
nounced in succession, and used, by common consent, as 
the sign of some idea. 

336. A word of one syllable is termed a monosyllable ; 
a word of two syllables, a dissyllahle ; a word of three 
syllables, a trissyllable ; a word of four or more sylla- 
bles, a polysyllable, 

337. It is sometimes required to divide words into their 
syllables. The syllables are then separated by a hyphen (-) 
according to the following rules : 

(I.) Every entire, simple word should be separated ; as, ice- 
house, over-power, good-ness, in-stil, what-ever, 

(II.) Grammatical terminations are generally to be separa- 
ted ; as, teach-est, teaeh-eth, teach-ing, teach-er^ great-er, hless-ed. 

(III.) Every syllable must have a vowel, and no syllable more 
than one, unless there be a dipthong, or a silent vowel ; as, 
wis-er, cru-el, boil, tame. 

(IV.) Every long syllable should (if possible) end with the 
vowel, and every short syllable with one consonant ; as, de-light, 
Jee-ble, da-ting, ra-ted, con-strain, dis-tract, noth-ing, nev-er, 

(V.) Double letters should be separated ; as, mel-low, mor- 
row, can-not. 



III. SPELLING. 

338. Spelling is the art of expressing words by their 
proper letters. 

339. English spelling is very irregular and difficult to be 
learned. But the following rules, well committed, will assist 
considerably. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 47 

Rule I. 

340. In monosyllables, f^ Z, or s final, preceded by a 
single vowel, is doubled ; as, staffs millj pass. Except 
if, q/*, as, has, gas, was, yes, is, his, this, us, thus, 

341. Other final consonants are never doubled ; except in 
add, odd, ehh, egg, inn, hunn, err, purr, butt, buzz, 

34:2, Words of more than one syllable do not end with 
double L 

Rule II. 

343. A consonant preceded by a dipthong or a long 
vowel, is never doubled. 

Rule III. 

344. A single consonant after a single, accented vowel, 
is doubled before an additional vowel ; as, wit, witty ; rid, 
ridden. 

345. In other cases the consonant is not doubled ; as, toil, 
toiling ; visit, visited. 

Rule IV. 

346. Double I generally becomes single before an ad- 
ditional consonant ; as, skill, skilful, skilless. Except 
illness, shrillness, stillness. 

347. Other letters do not become single ; as, oddly, stiffness. 

Rule V. 

348. E final must be added to a single consonant pre- 
ceded by a single long vowel ; as, fate, ride, brave. 
(337, IV.) 

Rule VI. 

349. Final e is omitted before an additional vowel, but 
before a consonant it is retained ; as, rate, ratable ; pale, 
paleness. 



48 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

350. Except awful^ duly, truly, wholly, agreement, and some- 
times abridgment, judgment, lodgment, acknowledgment, 

351. Ce and ge are preserved before a and o, to keep the 
soft sound ; as, peace, peaceable ; change, changeable, Ee is 
preserved before ing or able ; as, seeing, agreeable, le is 
changed to y before ing ; as, die, dying. 

Rule VII. 

352. Final y, when preceded by a consonant, is chan- 
ged into i, before any additional letter but i ; as, pity^ 
pities, pitied, pitiful, pitying, 

353. When preceded by a vowel, it is not changed; as, 
day, days. 



Rule VIII. 

354. Compound words are spelled like their simples ; 
as, hereof, recall, 

355. But in permanent compounds, double I generally be- 
comes single ; as, handful, always. 

Remark. 

356. H, i, j, k, q, u, v, w, x, y, are never doubled. Q is al- 
ways followed by u ; as, queen, ZJneed not be placed between 
and r ; as candor, not candour. Kneed not be placed after 
€ final, except in monosyllables ; as cambric, brick. 



IV. ABBREVIATION. 

357. Abbreviation is the art of expressing words in 
a shorter than their usual form, for the sake of brevity 
and despatch. 

358. Abbreviations are either contractions of the words, such 
as Capt., Cr., or the initial letters, such as JV*. S., P. M., or 
merely some arbitrary signs, such as ^, 8fc. 

359. Abbreviations should not be much used, and very 
seldom in writing to distinguished individuals. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 49 

CLASSES OF ABBREVIATIONS. 

360. (i.) To represent numhers by Roman characters. 
I, one ; V, Jive ; X, ten ; L, ffty ; C, one hundred ; D, 

Jive hundred ; M, one thousand. 

361. As many times as a letter is repeated, the value is 
repeated ; as, II, two ; XXX, thirty, 

362. A letter before a greater, is to be taken from its value ; 
as, lY, Jour ; IX, nine ; XC, ninety, 

363. A letter after a greater, is to be added to its value ; as, 
VI, six ; XI, eleven ; CX, 07ie hundred and ten, 

364. (ii.) To represent numbers by Arabic characters. 
1, one ; 2, tico ; 3, three ; 4:^ Jour ; 5, five ; ^6, six ; 7 
seven ; 8, eight ; 9, nine ; 0, nought, 

365. An Arabic character is increased ttnjold in value at 
every place it is removed toward the left ; as, 3, three ; 30, 
thirty ; 300, three hundred, 

366. (ill.) To Ye])reseYii Mathematical expressions ; as, 
(=:) equal to ; ( — ) minus^ less^ or subtract ; 6^c. 

367. (iv.) To represent measure oj capacity ; as, Gi, 
gill ; pt, pint ; qt. quart ; gal. gallon ; i^k. peck ; &c. 

368. (v.) To represent measure oJ length ; as, na, nail ; 
qr, quarter ; yd, yard ; Fl. e. ell Flemish ; in, inch ; Jt, 
foot ; (°) degree ; {') minute, or prime ; {") second, &c. 

369. (vi.) To represent iceight ; as, 2t-^. weight ; oz. 
ounce ; lb. pound ; ctct. hundred weight ; T. ton, &c. 

370. (vii.) To represent time; as, s. second; mi7i, 
minute ; h, hour ; d. day ; mo. month ; Y. year, &c. 

371. (viii.) To represent mong?/ ; as, £. eagle ; $ dol- 
lar ; ct, cent ; d. dime ; 7n. mill ; £ pound ; s. shilling, &c. 

372. (ix.) To represent musical expressions ; as, P. pi- 
ano, soft ; PP. pianissimo, very soft ; F. forte, loud, &c. 

373. (x.) To represent grammatical expressions ; as, 
sing, singular ; plu, plural ; ind. indicative, &c. 

374. (xi.) To represent names of persons ; as, Jas, 
James ; Jos, Joseph \ Chs, Charles ; Geo, George, &c. 

4* 



50 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

375. (xii.) To represent books of the Bible ; as, Gen, 
Genesis ; Ex, Exodus ; Lev, Leviticus ; Jud, Judges, &c. 

376. (xiii.). To represent names of Countries, States, 
Cities, &c. ; as. Me. Maine ; Vt, Vermont ; Oo, Ohio, &c. 

377. (xiv.) To represent titles and offices; as, J.. ^. »S. 
Fellow of the American Academy ; Bart. Baronet, (fee. 

V. PUNCTUATION. 

378. Punctuation is the art of supplying writing with 
proper stops and marks, to assist in determining the sense. 

379. The marks most used are those which denote 
pauses .f viz. the comma, (,) a short j^ause ; the semicolon, 
(;) a longer pause; the colon, {:) a still longer pause; 
and the period, (.) a full and perfect pause. 

Ru LE. I . 

380. Every parenthetic word and clause should be 
separated from the context by commas; as, 'Paul, the 
apostle of the Gentiles, was eminent for his zeal ;' ' He, 
in his youth, was trained to labor.' 

381. By parenthetic words and clauses, is meant such as 
have an3'thing of the nature of a parenthesis. Of this kind are 
the following : 

382. (I.) A common parenthesis. The comma must be 
placed before the parenthesis marks, and sometimes semicolons 
may be used ; as, ' Charles, (that was his name,) did as I bade 
him.' 

383. (II.) Words and clauses in the absolute case ; as, * He, 
his limbs being weary, sat down to rest;' ' Continue, my friend, 
to do thus ;' ' I was, to tell the truth, in the house.' 

384. (III.) A clause in apposition, or a word in apposition, 
if it be quite distinct ; as, ' Napoleon, Emperor of France, died 
a slave.' But, ' George Ingalls, the tanner.' 

385. (IV.) All descriptive and explanatory clauses, unless 
quite short ; as, ' It is not the West, with her forest sea and her 
inland isles, with her luxuriant expanses, clothed in the verdant 
corn, with her beautiful Ohio, and her majestic Missouri.' 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 51 

386. (V.) Generally all such expressions as these ; nay^ so^ 
hencCj again^ firsts secondly^ formerly^ now, lastly, once more^ above 
all, on the contrary, in the next place, in short, &c. 

Rule II . 

387. When more than two particulars are enumerated, 
they should be separated from each other by commas ; as, 
' A free, educated, peaceful. Christian people ;' ' A man 
fearing, loving, and serving his Creator.' 

388. Two particulars, if long, or if a conjunction is under- 
stood, must be separated ; as ' The glittering march of armies, 
and the reveling of the camp :' ' That long, dark night.' 

389. If the particulars are in pairs, the pairs only should be 
separated ; as, 'Truth is pure and artless, simple and sincere, 
uniform and consistent.' 

390. A comma may be inserted after the last particular, if 
there is much of a pause ; as, ' The husband, wife, and children, 
all suffered severely.' 

391. If the particulars be long, semicolons may sometimes 
be used. 

Rule III. 

392. All simple sentences, unless short and closely con- 
nected, should be separated by commas^ semicolons, colons, 
or periods, according to their distinctness ; as, ' He knew 
not what to do. He seized his hat, and rushed from the 
house ; for his spirit was troubled within him.' 

393. Also, if the subject be far from the verb, a comma may 
be pla^ced before the latter ; as, * The everlasting hills of the 
imperilLl city, still tower aloft.' 

394. Also, a long subjective or objective clause may be 
separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma ; as, ' To 
be totally indifferent to praise, is a defect.' 

395. Also, when words are omitted, or a contrast is expres- 
sed, a comma is inserted ; as, ' Though deep, yet clear ; though 
gentle, yet not dull.' 

396. In separating sentences, judgment and practice must 
determine whether a comma, a semicolon, a colon, or a period, 
is to be used. The colon need seldom be employed, and only 
in long sentences. The colon or semicolon is usually put be- 
fore an example or quotation ; as, ' There are twelve months, 
viz : — ' 



52 ORTHOGRAPHY. 



OTHER CHARACTJEIiS. 



397. Every ahhreviation^ title of a subject, and nurnher^ 
of a division, should be followed by a period ; as, N. B. ; 
Geo. L. Rogers, Prov. R. I. ; Jan. ; iv. 

398. An Interrogation mark (?) is placed at the end 
of a question ; as, ' Who will accompany me ?' 

399. This mark should not be used when it is merely said 
that a question was asked ; as, ' The Cyprians asked me, why 
I wept,^ 

400. An Exclamation mark (!) is placed at the end of 
sudden exclamations and addresses ; as, ' Alas ! what a 
horrible fate !' 

401» When an exclamatory expression is repeated, the mark 
may be doubled, tripled, &c. ; as, ' Raising his hands, he cried, 
lost ! lost ! ! lost ! ! !' 

402. When an expression has the nature both of a question 
and of an exclamation, the exclamation mark should generally 
be used ; as, ' How much vanity in the pursuits of men 1' 

403. A dash ( — ) is used at a sudden pause or change 
of subject ; as, ' Here lies the great — false marble, 
where ?' 

404. The dash, and other characters, are also used to denote 

an omission; as, Mr. J T n, 1-18 — ####^ They 

must not be used too much. 

405. The Parentheses ()are used to enclose whatever 
does not properly belong to a sentence ; as, ' Charles, (that 
was his name,) did as I bade him.' 

406. Brackets [ ] are used for nearly the same purpose, 
generally to enclose what is put in by another than the author. 

407. Quotation marks (" ") are used to enclose what- 
ever is quoted just as it was uttered ; as, " The proper 

study of mankind is man." 

408. A quotation within a quotation should be denoted by 
single marks ; as, " His words were — ' I am a dying man.' " 
In this book quotations are thus denoted. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 53f 

409. An Apostrophe (') is used when one or two letters 
are omitted, especially to mark the possessive case of 
nouns ; as, His for it is ; tho'' for though ; e'en for even ; 
man^s^ James\ 

410. A Hyphen (-) is used to connect the parts of 
compound words, and to divide a word at the end of a 
line ; as, ' lap-dog^ self-love^ to-day^ labor-savings com- 
mencement. 

411. A word must be divided only between the syllables, 
and the hyphen placed at the end of the line. (337.) 

412. A Caret ( ^ ) is used, in writing, beneath where an 
omission is supplied ; as, ' To-day thine.' 

A 

413. A Brace ( .— '^— ^ ) is used to connect different 
things under one head. 

414. A Dieresis ( " ) is used to distinguish two vowels 
which are not in the same syllable ; as, aerial, cooperate. 
(334.) A Cedilla (_,) is used to denote the soft sound of 
a letter ; as, receive. 

415. The marks (""''^) are used to denote the different 
sounds of vowels ; " the long^ " the shorty ^ the open 
vowels; as, fate, fat, far. (315.) 

416. The marks (' ^ " ') are used to denote the differ- 
ent slides in reading ; ' the risings ^ the fallings " the cir- 
cumftex^ ' the monotone. (477.) 

417. The Paragraph (H) and Section (§) denote a 
change in the subject. 

418. A Hand (05^) points to some important passage. 

419. The star^ (*) the dagger^ (f) the douUe dagger^ 
(I) \he parallels (||) the section^ {^) paragraph ^ (1|) &c., 
together with figures, and the letters of the Alphabet, are 
used to refer to notes at the margin or bottom of the page. 



54 ORTHOGRAPHY, 

VI. CAPITALS, 

It is necessary to begin with a capital^ 

420. (i.) The ^r5i5 z^orcZ of every book, chapter, letter^ 
note, or any piece of writing, and every line of poetry, 

421. (ii.) The first word after a period^ and after an 
interrogation or exclamation mark, if the parts be quite 
distinct ; and after a semicolon at the beginning of a quo- 
tation. 

422. (ni.) All Propernames and Adjectives^ 3.11 words 
appHed to the Deity ^ and the words I and O ; as, Jolm^ 
Rome^ Roman^ Red Sea^ Esquire^ Reverend^ Congress^ 
Baptist^ Monday^ Deity ^ O, here I am. 

423. (iv.) Every principal word in the heading of a 
book or article, and indeed any very important or em- 
phatic word. 

424. These words, in printing, are frequently expressed 
€nfi>eZ2/4nr-Gapitak. 

VII. TYPOGRAPHY, &c. 

425- English is written in the common round or square 
hand, sometimes in the perpendicular and back-slope hands. 

426. English is printed commonly in Roman letters, (like 
the last line,) frequently in Italic letters, sometimes in #lt3f 

iBnglfsl), sometimes in ^giJVtttait ^^Wt^ and sometimes 

in various ©mWAMUMlf'^Efl styles. 

427. The common sizes of type are — 

Pica, Small Pica, Long Primer, Bourgeois, Brevier, 
Minion^ Nonpareil, Pearl. 

428. Paper folded so as to make two leaves to a sheet, is 
called /oZio ; four ledives, quarto ; eight leaves, octoo or Svo ; 
twelve leaves, duodecimo or 12mo ; eighteen leaves, 18/no. This 
book is duodecimo. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 55 

429. The divisions and subdivisions of any work are in 
general nearly in the following order: Volumes, Books, Parts, 
Chapters, Divisions, Articles, Sections, Paragraphs. 

430. When a writing contains divisions and subdivisions, 
they may be numbered as follows ; the largest divisions by 
Roman characters, (I, II, III,) the next by Arabic characters, 
(1,2, 3,) the next by capital letters, (A, B, C,) the next by small 
letters, (a, b, c.) 

431. When there is an important turn in the thought, a new 
paragraph should be commenced, and only then. 

432. Emphatic words are denoted in printing by Italic let- 
ters, or by capitals, and in writing by being und erscored or 
written in back-slope. 

433. A date should be written above the right hand, except 
' in a diary^ where it is written at the left, and in some billets 

and notes, where it is written beneath the left hand. 

434. The title of a piece should be written over the middle, 
A name should be signed under the right hand. 



IV. PROSODY. 

435. Prosody teaches the correct utterance of the lan- 
guage, and the laws of poetry. 



I. TTTERAMCJE. 

436. Utterance may be considered in two parts, pro- 
nunciation and modulation, 

437. Speaking and reading depend upon the same principles, 
except that action is wanting in the latter ; and the best gene- 
ral rule for reading is, to read as we naturally converse. 

I. PRONUNCIATION. 

438. Pronunciation teaches the proper utterance of 
single words, and may be treated under the heads of 
Articulation^ Stress^ and Slides. 

I. Articulation. 

439. Articulation is the distinct utterance of sounds by 
the human voice. 

440. Articulate, or human sounds are first produced by the 
forcing of wind through the glottis, a small opening in the 
upper part of the windpipe, and are afterwards modified by the 
action of the organs of speech in the mouth. (310.) 

441. (I.) Sounds may be either high or low. This depends 
upon the width to which the glottis is opened, and gives rise to 
melody. 

442. (II.) Sounds may be either loud or soft. This depends 
upon the force with which the wind is emitted, and is called 
the force. 



PROSODY. 57 

443. (III.) Sounds may be either lo7ig or shoit This de- 
pends upon the time during which the wind is emitted, and is 
called the rate, 

444. Practising the voice will extend its power, as to 
pitchy as to quantity^ and as to length ; and will also serve 
to correct any defects of articulation which habit may 
have produced. 

445. The elementary or simple sounds of the language, 
have been explained in Orthography. Upon these the voice 
should be frequently practised. 

Defects of Articulation. 

446. (i.) Defects in the organs of speech, such as the 
jmlate^ teeth^ tongue. Such defects can seldom be fully 
removed ; but careful practice will, in most cases, do 
much towards it. The case of Demosthenes is familiar 
to all. 

447. (ii.) Stammering. This arises either from want 
of control over the nerves, from excitement, or from 
habit, and may generally be removed by some practice. 

448. (hi.) Difficulty in sounding some particular let- 
ter, as 5, (called lisping.) This, in general may be easily 
corrected. 

449. (iv.) Indistinctness, owing to the nose being too 
much closed, (improperly called ' speaking through the 
nose,'*) 

450. (v.) Indistinctness, owing to the mouth being too 
much closed. 

451. (vi.) Weakness of voice, owing to want of effort 
in uttering sounds. 

452. (vii.) Too great slowness, or a hesitating and 
blundering utterance, owing to want of practice in reading. 

453. (viii.) Too great rapidity, especially in pronoun- 
cing long words, so as to render a part of the syllables 
imperceptible ; as, ^Vem'^V'Z^/, for peremptorily, 

5 



58 PROSODY. 

454. (ix.) An obscuring of the sound of short vowels 
and syllables ; as, pr'^vent for prevent^ reh'^l for relel, 

455. (x.) Giving too much importance to short vowels 
and syllables ; as, ev-un for even^ ivick-ud for tvicked. 

456. (xi.) Sounding more letters than are in a word; 
as, criticisum for criticism^ lawr for laiv^ perize for prize. 

457. (xii.) Neglect to sound consonants plainly, espe- 
cially at the close of words ; as, an' for and^ inspec^ for 
inspect^ lo'^en for ivJien, 

458. (xiii.) Neglect to repeat difficult sounds which 
occur in succession ; as, the battle last till^ for the tattle 
lasts still. 

459. (xiv.) Giving an incoiTect sound to letters and 
words ; as, hile for loil^ wust for icorst. This is to be 
corrected chiefly by means of the dictionary, and comes 
under the head of Orthoepy. 

II. Stress. 

460. Stress is the peculiar force with which some syl- 
lables are pronounced, in order to distinguish them from 
others, and is either accent or emphasis. 

I. Accent. 

461. Accent is the stress which is laid upon one sylla- 
ble of every word, by which it is made louder than the 
rest ; as, dis-ap-pear , 

462. The uses of accent seem to be — first, to distinguish 
words from each other — and secondly, to give an opportunity 
for new emissions of sound at suitable intervals from each 
other. 

463. For this reason, when several monosyllables succeed 
each other, one or more of them must have an accent ; as, ' I 
shall go' to-day'.' 

464. Long words in many cases, besides the regular accent, 
have a secondary accent on some other syllable ; as, re'feree'^ 
reph'esen'taiive. 

465. The syllable on which the accent shall be placed, ia 



PROSODY. 59 

determined by custom ; but errors are frequently committed in 
the placing: of the accent ; as de'tail for detail'. 

466. When ths same word is of different parts of speech, 
they are frequently distinguished by different accent ; as, con'- 
vertf convert^ ; des'ert, deserV. 

II« C^mpliasis. 

467. Epiphasis is the strengthening of the accent on 
particular words, to distinguish them from others less 
important. 

468. An emphatic syllable should be pronounced not only 
louder^ but generally longer than others. There are different 
degrees of emphasis, both as to loudness and as to length ; and 
since it depends upon relative and not upon absolute sound, 
there may be emphasis, even in a whisper, 

469. Want of sufficient emphasis on important words, is a 
common fault with readers and speakers, and often destroys 
the whole meaning of a passage ; as, *Paul had determined to 
sail by Ephesus,' instead of ' Paul had determined to sail hy 
Ephesus.' 

470. But in avoiding this fault, care must be taken not to 
emphasize too many and unimportant words, or to fall into a 
measured or singing emphasis ; as, ' He is the' man of^ all the' 
world, whom' I re'joice to' meet.' 

471. Yet small words may sometimes become most impor- 
tant, and then require an emphasis ; as, ' Then said the high 
priest, are these things so' ?' 

472. EuLE I. All words which are in contrast with 
each other, must be emphasized ; as, ' It is not so diffi- 
cult io talk w^ell, as to live well.' 

473. Sometimes one part of a contrast is understood ; as, 
'You wronged yourself to write in such a cause,' — ' as well as 
others,'' understood. 

474. The contrast sometimes changes the proper place of 
the stress ; as, ' He must m'crease, but I must c^e'crease.' 

475. EuLE II. Words not in contrast, when they are 
quite important to the sense, should be emphasized ; as, 
' ZTp, comrades — up.'^ 

476. Sometimes several words in succession are to be em- 
phasized, forming an emphatic clause ; as, * Tf-Rome-must-fall-^ 
yet we are innocent.' Sometimes several particulars follow 
each other, each of which is to be emphasized ; as, ' They have 
beaten us, openly, unconc^emnet/, being J?omans,' 



60 PROSOBY. 

III. Slides. 

477. Slides are the peculiar inclinations of the voice 
with which syllables with a stress are uttered. 

478. These slides are of different lengths, according to the 
length of the stress. In accent they are hardly perceptible, 
in common emphasis they are quite plain, and in intense em- 
phasis they are very long and distinct. 

479. There are four slides, the risings fallings cfrcum- 
fiex^ and monotone, 

480. The rising slide, (marked ") begins at the usual 
pitch, and turns the sound upwards ; as, ' Did you speak 

to m^ ' wP m 

481. The falling slide (marked ^) begins above the 
usual pitch, and turns the sound downward ; as, ' Yes, I 

y 

spoke to you\ you\ ^^K 

482. The circumflex (marked ") unites the falling and 

rising in the same syllable ; as, ' Y5W, y^u^ y^u^ are very 
laise.^ ^ 

483. The monotone^ (marked " ) continues the sound on 
the same tone throughout ; as, ^ He rode upon a cherub 
and did fly.' 

484. When short syllables follow a slide, they are continued 
upon the same tone on which the slide ends ; as, peremp'torily. 

Use of tlie Slides. 

485. Rule I. When words are in contrast^ the first 
has the rising, and the last the falling slide ; as, ' It is 
not so difficult to talk well, as to live well.' 

486. EuLE II. A question that can be answered by 
yes or no, ends with the rising slide, other questions with 
the falling ; as, 'Is it you ?' ' Who are you .?' 

487. Rule III. Tender emotion inclines to the rising 
slide ; and strong emotion, such as exclamation, denun- 



PROSODY. 61 

ci^ition, command, to the falling slide; as, ^ Jesus saith 
unto her, Mary.' ' Hence ! hence, you idle creatures.' 

488. EuLE IV. The pause of sus'pension^ denoting 
that the sense is unfinished, requires the rising slide ; but 
the Jlnal pause, denoting that the sense is finished, requires 
the falling slide ; as, ' His father dying, he took possession 
of the estate.' 

489. Rule V. The falling slide is to be used in many 
cases, besides at the end of sentences ; especially in em- 
phatic repetition, or succession of particulars ; as, ' Char- 
ity sufTereth long, and is kind ; charity envieth not ; char- 
ity vaunteth not itself,' &c- 

, 490. Rule VI. For the sake of variety, the last pause 
but one in a sentence usually has the rising slide ; as, 
' Charity seeketh not her own ; is not easily provoked , 
thinketh no evil.' This is sometimes the oase with the 
final pause. 

491. Rule VII. The circumflex is us^d in doubtful and 
sarcastic expressions ; as, ' They tell iis to be moderate ; 
but they, they, are to revel in profusion.' 

492. Rule VIII. The monotone is used in solemn and 
dignified discourse, but must not be employed too fre- 
quently. 

II. MODULATION. 

493. Modulation teaches the proper management of 
the voice in the utterance of whole sentences and dis- 
courses, and may be treated under the heads of melody, 
force, and rate, 

L Melody. 



s 



494. Melody is founded on the distinction of sounds 
as high or low, and teaches a proper modulation in this 
respect. 

5* 



62 PROSODY. 

495. In delivery, as in singing, there should be a constant 
variation of tones, which proceed upon the same principles, 
and may be denoted in the same manner. 

496. There are three kinds of melody, major ^ minor ^ 
and uniform. 

497. (i.) Major melody consists of a variety oi full 

and swelling tones, and is used in all common discourse, 

and earnest utterance ; as, 

' Sp^ak, grave 

starless shine, talofe 

and the shall thepor ter 

nal 
day.' 

498. Minor melody consists of a variety of half-tones, 
with half-tone slides, and* is used in soft and plaintive dis- 
course ; as, 

for those who forwearv 

^ There is a calm weep, A rest •' pilgrims 

found.' 

499. Uniform melody consists of a succession of notes 
on the same pitch with monotone slides ; and is sometimes 
used in solemn and dignified discourse ; as, 

' I saw a great white throne, and him that sat on it.' 

Faults in Melody. 

500. The most frequent fault is a too common use of 
the uniform and minor melodies, when the major is re- 
quired. The uniform particularly is seldom to be used, 
and for but few words at a time. 

501. But in avoiding this fault, some persons give too 

much variety, using a jumping manner, without much 

regard to sentiment ; as, 

Lin sun all lay,' &c. 

^ On den low, less 

when 

the was blood 

502. Another fault consists in uniformly beginning high, 



PROSODY. 63 

and gradually descending towards the close of the clause, 
or sentence, and then commencing high again ; as, 

vain here false, fair.' 

<How are be and 

all low ; yet 

things how how 

Compass and Pitcli. 

503. Compass of voice is the distance which it can move 
from the highest to the lowest tone, and is different in different 
persons. In nothing will practice effect more than in this, and 
in nothing do delivery and singing more assist each other. 

504. Pitch of voice is the prevailing tone on which any per- 
formance is uttered, and may be divided into three kinds ; the 
high pitch, used in calling to a person at a distance, or in very 
earnest utterance ; the middle pitch, used in common conversa- 
tion, and in most delivery ; and the low pitch, used in soft or 
solemn discourse. We may use any of the melodies on any 
of these pitches. 

505. Rule I. A subject should usually be begun with 
the middle pitch, so that the voice may rise and fall as it 
proceeds. 

506. But if a subject commence remarkably bold or solemn, 
a higher or lower pitch may be adopted. 

507. Rule II. As the sentiment changes, especially 
at the beginning of new subjects, the pitch should be 
changed. 

Cadence. 

508. At the close of a complete thought, whether there 
be a period or not, the voice should fall below its usual 
pitch. This is called cadence. 

509. But in interrogative sentences, and in a few other 
cases, the voice rises ; as, ' You were paid to fight against Al- 
exander, not to rail at him.' 

510. There are different kinds of cadences. Sometimes the 
voice comes down gradually, cf5 the steps of a ladder; and 
sometimes it comes down suddenly upon the last syllable ; and 
sometimes in other ways. 



64 PROSODY. 

511. At the close of a whole subject, the cadence should 
be lower and fuller than usual. 

512. It is a common fault, not to make full and complete 
cadences. 

II. Force. 

513. Force in delivery is founded on the distinx3tion of 
sounds, as loud or soft^ and teaches a proper modulation 
in this respect. 

514. Persons are apt to confound force with melody^ and if 
they are told to speak loud^ they think they must speak high 
But there is a great difference. 

515. It will be remembered that accent and emphasis are a 
louder utterance of particular syllables and words. 

516. But in putting a force upon sounds, there must be a 
fulness and clearness^ as well as loudness of tone, to make it 
agreeable and affective. 

517. There should be constant variety of force in dif- 
ferent parts of the same performance, and the sound 
should be adapted to the sense. 

518. Plaintive delivery requires soft tones ; bold and 
declamatory discourse requires full and swelling tones. 

III. Eate. 

519. Rate of delivery is founded upon the distinction 
of sounds, as long or shorty and the pauses between the 
sounds— ^and teaches a proper modulation in these re- 
spects. 

I. licngtli ot Sounds. 

5.20. It will be remembered that syllables with a slide are 
sounded longer than others. The sound may be prolonged to 
any extent, and often great force is added by dwelling on a 
single syllable. 

521. In prolonging syllables, the vowels are the parts to be 
dwelt upon, and long or open vowels are peculiarly adapted to 
this purpose ; as, hale, harm. 



PROSODY. 65 

522. In solemn and dignified discourse, the sounds 
should be prolonged ; in lively and brisk discourse, they 
should be cut short. 

II. Pauses. 

523. Pauses answer two purposes ; first, to give the speak- 
er opportunity to take his breath ; and secondly, to make the 
sense more obvious to the hearers. The breath should be 
drawn after every four or five words, so that it may be slight 
and not perceptible. 

524. A pause must be made at all periods^ colons^ se- 
micolons^ commas^ interrogation and exclamation marks^ 
and dashes ; but the exact length depends upon the sense. 

525. Many pauses must be made where there are no 
marks, but short, and not between words closely connect- 
ed by Syntax. 

526. Plaintive emotions either suppress the voice en- 
tirely, or cause it to be uttered with many pauses. 

527. A pause should frequently be made after emphat- 
ic words, and in some cases a long suspension of voice 
will produce great effect. 

528. At a change in the subject, a pause should be 
made longer than usual, to denote the change, and to rest 
the voice. 

529. The effect of delivery depends much more upon melo- 
dy and rate, than upon force ; and Avith proper management the 
softest tones will command attention. 



II. POETRY. 



530, Poetry in its construction differs from prose^ in 
having its accents placed at regular intervals, so that it 
may be adapted to singing, and measured in beats. 



66 PROSODY, 

531. Poetry is of two kinds, hlank verse and rhyme. 

532. Rhyme is a correspondence in the sound at the close 
of different lines. It is generally more stiff, and less adapted 
to forcible and sublime sentiments than blank verse. 

533. In all poetry, the accents are made to fall either 
upon every second or upon every third syllable. Hence 
there are tvi^o kinds of poetic measure, double and triple 
measure. 

534. Two or three syllables together are sometimes called 
B^foot, because in measuring, they may be denoted by a beat 
of the Joot, There are reckoned eight different kinds of feet, 
or ways of reckoning syllables, viz : 

FOUR OF TWO SYLLABLES. 

Trochee^ accent on the first syllable ; as, hateful. 
Iambus^ " " " last " as, betray. 

Spondee, " " both " as, pale moon, 

Pyrrhic, " " neither " as, on the, 

FOUR OF THREE SYLLABLES. 

Dactyl, accent on the first syllable : as, possible, 
Amphibrach, " " " second " as, delightful, 
Anap(Bst, " " " last " as, contravene. 
Tribrach, " " none ; as, nu^merable. 



I. DOUBLE MEASURE. 

535. Double measure has every second syllable accent- 
ed. If the even syllables are accented, it is called Iambic 
measure ; if the odd syllables are accented, it is called 
Trochaic measure. 

536. These names are taken from the feet to which they 
correspond. 

I. Iambic Measure. 

537. Iambic measure has all the even syllables accent- 
ed. Its lines are of different lengths as follows : — 

Of 3 syllables ; as, * Disdaining, Complaining, Consenting.^ 
Of 4 ; as, * What place is h^re ! What scenes appear !' 
Of 5; as, ' Upon a mountain, Beside a fountain.' 



PROSODY. 67 

Of 6 ; as, ^Once more before we part' 

Of 7 ; as, ' When shall the voice of singing ?' 

Of 8 ; as, * Loud swell the pealing organ's notes.' 

Of 9 ; as, * 'Tis sw6et to think of one above us.' 

Of 10 ; as, ' A heap of diist alone remains of th^e.' 

Of ]1 ; as, ' The Lord is good, His mercy never ending.' 

Of 12; as, ' For thou art but of dust ; be humble and be wise.' 

n. Trochaic Measure. 

538. Trochaic measure has all the odd syllables ac- 
cented. Its lines are of different lengths, as follows : — 

Of 3 syllables ; as, * Tumult cease. Sink to peace.' 

Of 4 ; as, ' On' the mountain. By' a fountain.' 

Of 5 ; as, ^ Save me from my foes.' 

Of 6 ; as, ' When our hearts are mourning.' 

Of 7 ; as, ^ Bid my anxious fears subside.' 

Of 8 ; as, ' When 1 tread the verge of Jordan.' 

Of 9 ; as, * I'dle after dinner in his chair.' 

Of 10 ; as, ' All' that walk on foot or ride in chariots.' 

Of 11 : as, ' Splendid in the glorious arch of heav'n above.' 

Of 12 ; as, * On' a mountain, stretched beneath a hoary willow.' 



IL TRIPLE MEASURE. 

339. Triple measure has every third syllable accented. 
If the accent begin with \he first syllable, the measure is 
called Dac^i/Zic ; if with t\iQ second syllable, it is called 
Amphilric ; if with the third syllable, Anapcesiic. 

I. Dactylic Measure. 

540. Dactylic measure has the firsts fourth^ seventh^ 
&c., syllables accented. Its lines are of different lengths, 
thus : — 

Of 3 syllables ; as, ' Willingly, Killingly.' 

Of 4 ; as, ' Willingly he.' 

Of 5 ; as, ' High on the mountains.' 

Of 6 ; as, ' High o'er the heavens above.' 

Of 7 ; as, ' Solitude where are thy charms.' 

Of 11 ; as, 'From the low pleasures of this fallen nature.' &.c. 



68 PROSODY- 



11. Amphibric Measitiie. 

541. Amphibric measure has the second^ ffi^t eighth^ 

&c., syllables accented. Its lines are of different lengths, 

thus : — 

Of 3 syllables ; as, ' Disdaining, Complaining.' 

Of 4; as, * Disdainingly, Complainingly.' 

Of 5 ; as, ' Disdainingly h^.' 

Of 6 ; as, \Disdainingly smiling.' 

Of 7 ; as, 'Disdainingly Eyeing him.* 

Of 8 ; as, ' Oh, solitude, wh6re are thy charms.' &^c. 

III. Anap^stic Measure. 

542. Anapaestic measure has the thirds sixths ninths 

&c., syllables accented. Its lines are of different lengths, 

thus : — 

Of 3 syllables ; as, ' But in vain They complain.' 

Of 4 ; as, ' On the mountain.' 

Of 6 ; as, ' But no arts could avail.' 

Of 7 ; as, ' But no arts could avail him.' 

Of 9 ; as, ' Oh ye woods, spread your branches apace.' 

Of 12 ; as, ' May I govern my passions with absolute sway.' &c. 

Remarks. 

543. The different kinds of Triple measure are very much 
alike, and may be changed into each other quite easily. 

544. Short syllables are frequently slurred over, an apostro- 
phe being generally inserted ; as, ' Innum'rable before th' Al- 
mighty's throne;' murmhinsr, His, mav.y^a, 

545. In Iambic measure, Trochees^ Spondees, and Pyrrhuses 
sometimes take the place of Iambuses, especially at the be- 
ginning; as, 

* Miirm'ring and with him fled the shades of night.' 
' That on weak wings from far pursues his flight.' 

546. Many monosyllables may be either accented or unac- 
cented, according to their situation. But some cannot be ac- 
cented at all ; as, a, ihe, of, 

547. It is a defect in English, that many long words cannot 
be used in poetry, on account of the accent ; as, impetuosity^ 
magnanimity, 

548. In music a line of four syllables is sometimes called 



PROSODY. 69 

4's ; o^Jive syllables, 5's ; o^ six syllables, 6's, &,c. Ten sylla- 
ble Iambics are called heroic lines, and twelve syllable Iambics 
are called Alexandrines, 

549. Different kinds of measure are suited to different sub- 
jects. The Tnple is more flowing and easy than the Double, 
Short lines are more lively than long ones. Iambic measure, 
especially heroic is more used than any other. 

Stanzas. 

550. A stanza,, (sometimes called a verse,) is any num- 
ber of lines, containing all the different kinds of lines in 
the piece. 

551. A couplet is two adjacent lines, in rhyme with 
each other. A triplet is three such lines. 

552. Stanzas are of different kinds, according to the 
kind and arrangement of the lines. The most common 
are called common,, short,, particular ,, hallelujah,, &c. 

553. Common metre stanzas consist of four Iambic lines ; 
one of eight, the next of six syllables. They were formerly 
written in two fourteen syllable lines. 

554. Short metre stanzas consist of four Iambic lines ; the 
iMrd of eight, the rest of six syllables. 

555. Particular metre stanzas consist of six Iambic lines ; 
the third and sixth of six syllables, the rest of eight. 

556. Hallelujah metre stanzas consist of six Iambic lines ; 
the last two of eight syllables, and the rest of six. 

557. Long metre stanzas are merely the union of four Iam- 
bic lines. They sometimes consist of six lines. 

The Reading of Poetry. 

558. Poetry should generally be read in a more swel- 
ling and flowing manner than prose. 

559. In common lines a pause should be observed, as 
near as possible to the middle^ which is called the ccesural 
pause ; as, 

' Warms in the sun, || refreshes in the breeze, 
Glows in the stars, || and blossoms in the trees.** 
6 



70 PROSODY. 

560. But the pause must be so placed as not to injure the 
sense; as, 

' I sit, 11 with sad civility I read.' 

561. In most lines, a slight pause should be observed 
at the end, even if there is no mark ; as, 

^ ^Thus with the year 

Seasons return ; 1 1 but not to me returns .... 
Day, II or the sweet approach of even or morn.' 

562. A stress should not be placed on syllables which 
do not allow it, merely to mark the measure ; as, 

' False eloquence^ like the prismatic glass,' &c. 

563. Vowels which are slurred over should be pronoun- 
ced in reading, but it should be slightly. 



APPENDIX; 

CONTAINING 

NOTES, CRITICAL AND EXPLANATORY. 



THE FIGURES REFER TO THE PRECEDING TEXT-BOOK. 



GRAMMAR. 



1. Grammar, like arithmetic, is both a science and an art 
As an art, it consists in the right use of language. But as a 
science it consists of a system of principles and rules which 
teach that art, but are not the art itself. Philosophical Gram- 
mar explains the principles which are common to all languages, 
and which, being founded on the very nature of the mind, are 
more extensive than is frequently supposed. Particular 
Grammar applies these general principles to a particular lan- 
guage, adapting them to the practice of the best writers by 
whom it is used. It is with the particular grammar of the 
English language that we have now to do. 

" Grammar is the science of language." — Kirkham^s Grammar, 
The English language was originally formed from the Sax- 
on, which, with other tongues, was founded upon the ancient 
Gothic. The Saxons, coming from Germany in the fifth cen- 
tury, took possession of the South of England, and gave rise 
to the present language. In the ninth century, the Danes, 
from Denmark, began to trouble England ; and from that time 
we can trace the progress of the language by writings which 
remain. In the eleventh century, the Danes gained possession 
of the country, and, though they reigned but a short time, 
produced some effect upon the language. In the same century, 
the Normans took the country, and endeavored to introduce 
their language, (the Norman-French.) They did not succeed 
in this, but a large number of Norman words and phrases were 
thus incorporated into the previous Saxon language ; and it 
continued to improve, till at about the thirteenth century, it 
may be called English, though so different from the modern 



72 APPENDIX. 

English, as to be scarcely intelligible to us. Since that time 
it has gradually improved, by the addition of words from the 
Greek, Latin, French, Italian, Spanish, and German, and by 
the more regular arrangement of its disorderly parts. It is now 
probably as copious and forcible a language as any that is 
spoken, and is still receiving constant accessions from those 
foreign sources. 

Most of the words of a language have no real connection 
with the ideas which are attached to them, but are merely used 
by common consent as signs of these ideas. The same word 
has many ideas attached to it ; so that the number of words is 
far less than the number of ideas to be conveyed. In English 
the number, after deducting proper names, and variations of 
other words, does not exceed forty thousand. 



ETYMOLOGY. 

5 — 10. Words have been generally divided into the nine 
parts of speech merely. Pursuing very nearly this arrangement, 
we have added another and more general classification into 
four classes, the benefits of which will be obvious. It brings 
together parts of speech which are similar, and thus produces 
clearness and comprehensiveness in the study. It simplifies 
the language of Syntax, and is a principle means of reducing 
the common number of general rules, (from tiventy-three to 
sixty,) down to fourteen. Upon the propriety of the names 
adopted, we offer the following — 

6. " Substantive, in grammar, the part of speech which ex- 
presses something that exists, whether material or immaterial." — 

Wehster, 

7. " Adjective, in grammar, a word used with a noun, to ex- 
press a quality of the thing named, or something attributed, or 
to limit or define it, or to specify or define a thing as distinct 
from something else." — Wehster. '^ Adjective, a word added to 
a substantive,'^ &c. — Murray et at. Such, too, is the Etymolo- 
gy of the word. Adjective pronouns, (as they are commonly 
called,) are certainly adjectives. But why should the articles 
be excluded ? Are they not added to substantives ? Is not the 
as much an adjective as thatf Accordiagly, we reckon adjec- 
tive pronouns and articles as one kind of adjectives, under the 
name of definitives, and other adjectives are called descriptives, 
to distinguish them. " The, an adjective or definitive adjec- 
tive.^^ — Webster. "An is a mere adjective." — Webster. " That 
is a word used as a definitive adjective.''^ — Webster. And so of 
all other words. " Definitive, in grammar, an adjective used to 



APPENDIX. 73 

define or limit the extent of the signification of an appellative 
or common noun."— Websier. See also Fisk's Murray. " In a 
scientific arrangement of grammatical principles, a and the 
belong to that class of adjectives denominated definitives or 
restrictives. — Kirkham^s Grammar. 

9. " Particle, in grammar, a word that is not varied or in- 
flected."— ^Fet^fer. ''The parts of speech which are not 
inflected, are called by the general name of particles. They 
are adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections." — 
Andrews' Latin Exercises. 

- If we suppose men to have formerly existed entirely with- 
out language, it is natural to imagine that they invented words 
very nearly in the order in which we have arranged them. 
Their first business would be to apply names to the objects 
around them, then to point them out, then to make statements 
in relation to them, and finally to use other words to abbreviate 
their expressions, and to show delicate turns of thought. Thus, 
in looking at the stars, a beginner*in language would exclaim 
^' stars P^ and this would answer his present purpose ; but an 
individual more advanced would cry, " bright stars !" and one 
still further acquainted with language would pronounce, 
" bright stars shine ;" while one thoroughly skilled in the 
communication of thought, would say, " The bright stars shine 
beautifully above,^^ This will be found to be nearly the way in 
which children learn to talk, 

SUBSTANTIVES. 

13 — 19. Many reckon abstract nouns, like collective nouns, 
as a subdivision of the common. But can such words as mercy, 
loveliness, meekness, be brought under any regular definition of 
common nouns ? By forming a separate class, we make the 
definitions more accurate, we give an opportunity for the dis- 
tinction at 45, and we may exercise the scholar in judging 
between common and abstract nouns, and modes of expression. 
" Nouns are either proper, common, or abstract.^'' — Andrews^ 
Latin Exercises. The proper and common name of an object 
are frequently associated ; as, Cowper, the poet. 

20. What are sometimes termed adjective pronouns we place 
under the head of adjectives, rather than under that of p'onouns. 
The reason is, that their appropriate use is that of adjectives, 
and when they are not so used, a substantive is properly un- 
derstood. See Brown's and Kirkham's Grammars. 

22. When it is so used, it seems not to relate to any particular 
thing, but to a slate of existence. When there is so used, it has 
a shorter pronunciation and a very different meaning from the 
adverb there. It is used with the verb be, only. 

6* 



74 APPENDIX. 

26. Whether was formerly used as an interrogative, referring 
to one of two things ; as, " Whether is greater, the gold or the 
temple ?" We now use the adjective which instead of it. 

27. " The word for which n, pronoun stands, is called its an- 
tecedent. But some have limited the term antecedent to the 
word represented by a relative^ — Brown^s Grammar. A pro- 
noun is sometimes antecedent to another pronoun ; as, " He 
that comes." Some call the word an antecedent, even if it 
comes after the pronoun ; but this is evidently wrong. 

28. Person is that property of a substantive which shows its 
relation to the discourse itself, whether as author, hearer, or 
mere subject of the discourse. JYumher is that property which 
has reference to unity and plurality. Gender is a distinction 
in regard to sex. Case is the relation of a substantive in a 
sentence ; it therefore properly belongs to Syntax, under which 
head it is treated. How often has the learner been puzzled to 
understand case, merely because it was brought before him 
out of its proper place ! 

30, 31. You was formerly confined to the plural number, but 
is now used in common discourse as singular also, the original 
singular thou, (with its plural ye,) being reserved for solemn 
and dignified discourse. The solemn style is used in the 
scriptures and some solemn writings, in our addresses to the 
Deity, in most poetry, and universally by the Friends. Is it 
not a palpable defect in our grammars, to overlook this dis- 
tinction, and compel us still to parse 2/oit as always plural? 
"Some grammarians consider the pronoun you to be always of 
the plural number; and the reason which they give, is this, 
that the pronoun you always requires a plural verb ; but I 
consider that there is no more impropriety in saying that are is 
singular when it agrees with you, (you meaning but one per- 
son,) than there is in saying ivere is singular, when it agrees 
with /, thou, he, she, or it, of the third person singular."— ?fi76wr 
and BryanVs Grammar. 

32—34. " Nouns have two persons, the second and third. In 
sentences like the following, ' I Jonas Taylor, give,' &c., it is 
evident that the speaker, in introducing his own name, speaks 
of himself; consequently the noun is of the third person. — 
Kirkham^s Grammar. " All nouns and pronouns whatever, ex- 
cept /, thou, we, ye, or you, are, in grammatical construction, of 
the third person. — Alexander\s Grammar. 

35. In the Greek and some other languages, there are three 
numbers ; the singular, to represent one ; the dual, to represent 
two; and the plural to represent more than two. This proba- 
bly originated from an ignorance of counting in the first ages. 
Thus thQ savage would count 07ie, tivoy and being able to go 



APPENDIX. 75 

no farther, would call all other numbers many or plural 
Something of the dual sense is seen in our either, neither, both, 
and the ancient whether, 

36, 37. The addition of s or es sometimes produces an addi- 
tional syllable, and sometimes it does not ; as, house, houses, 
box, box-es, cargo, cargoes, 

38. Y with a vowel before it, is sometimes changed into les 
by good authorities ; as, atiornies, journies. But this is best 
avoided. 

41. The following are the principal words which have for- 
eign plurals according to this rule; Antithesis, apex, appendix, 
arcanum, automaton, axis, basis, calx, crisis, criterion, datum, 
dieresis, desideratum, effluvium, ellipsis, emphasis, encomium, 
erratum, genius, hypothesis, ignus fatuus, index, magus, media, 
memorandum, metamorphosis, parenthesis, phenomenon, radius, 
stimulus, stratum, thesis, vertex, vortex. 

43. There are different opinions as to these expressions. 
Some think they should be baskets-ful, Miss Thoynpsons, 

50. It is generally said that words connected by and require 
a plural verb, without exception. But it is evident that there 
are many exceptions. 

55. It will be perceived that all nouns are properly of the 
third person, and that the third person only has the distinc- 
tions of sex. The reason is, that the first and second persons 
being present, their names and their sex are supposed to be 
known, and therefore no nouns or genders are needed for these 
persons. 

Males and females are distinguished by words in three 
principal ways : 

(1.) By the use of different names; as, boy, girl ; father, 
mother ; brother, sister, 

(2.) By the use of different terminations ; as, abbot, abbess ; 
hero, heroine, 

(3.) By prefixing another word ; as, man-servant, maid-ser- 
vant, 

ADJECTIVES. 

57. For the propriety of the words adjective and definitive as 
here used, see note 7. 60. At the end of this paragraph, for 
" both numbers,''^ read " either number,'^ 

61. The original article is an from the Saxon ane one. Hence 
its meaning. When we say a house, we mean in fact one 
house. Thus in French, the number une, one, answers both 
purposes ; and hence a Frenchman learning English, says one 
hook, one man, for a book, a man. An was formerly used be- 
fore all words beginning with h ; as, an house, an hundred. 



76 APPENDIX. 

63. The uniting of an and othei- seems to be unnecessary, 
and sometimes leads to the repetition of the article ; as, anoth- 
er such a man, 

65—70. It will be perceived that the distinctions of arti- 
cles, demonstratives, &c. are not brought before the mind of 
the beginner, to confuse it, but are reserved for a later period 
of the study. The distinction of definitive is sufficiently mi- 
nute for the novice in grammar, and answers all practical pur- 
poses. How much better this, than to fill his' mind in the out- 
set with unimportant names and useless distinctions. 

65. It is generally said that the shows exactly what i« 
meant, and a or an does not. But that no such general rule 
can be laid down will be evident from the following examples; 
He played the gentleman. Lions roam in the Jorest, Solomon 
built a temple, Washington was a patriot. It is also general- 
ly said that a noun without an article is taken in its widest 
sense. That this rule is not general will be seen from the fol- 
lowing cases ; Boys, come in, Air is in this room. All that 
can properly be said of the articles, is, that a is used to mean 
one, and the is used when an article is needed and a would not 
do. The is sometimes used before a singular to designate the 
whole class; as, the beasts of the forest. When the is prefixed 
to adverbs, adverbial phrases are formed ; as, the better, (that 
is, in the better manner,) 

The importance of the proper use ©f articles will be seen 
from the different meanings of the following expressions ; 'the 
son of a king,' 'the son of the king,' 'a son of a king,' ' a son 
of the king,' ' thou art a man,' ' thou art the man.' 

67, The words ivhich and what are generally reckoned as a 
distinct kind of definitives, under the name of interrogativQS. 
But they are used as often without asking a question as with. 
They are therefore properly reckoned among the indefinites, 

68, Every was formerly used apart from its substantive, but 
is not now, except in legal language ; as, ' Each and every 
of them.' 

69, 70. Both numerals and ordinals are Sometimes called 
numerals, the first kind being distinguished as cardinal. But 
this makes unnecessary confusion ; and besides, the words 

fi'st, second, S^c, do no express number, 

71. Definitives when alone may be parsed, either as agree- 
ing with their substantives understood, or as definitives used 
as pronouns. 

72. Descriptives are sometimes divided into common ; as, 
good, bad ; — proper ; as, American, English ; — and compound ; 
as, nut-brown, laughter-loving, four-footed. 



APPENDIX. 77 

74. There seems to be an impropriety in the use of the word 
degree^ as applied to the positive. Hence we use the word 
form. For the same reason, we avoid the expression degrees 
of comparison, since comparison is not always implied. "The 
degrees of comparison are two ; the comparative and superla- 
tive." — Alexander's Gramma?-. 

Most qualities have an infinite number of degrees. But as 
these could not all be expressed by different forms, we use but 
a few differe^it shapes of the descriptive, and denote the de- 
gree of quality more exactly by the use of adverbs. It is only 
words of one syllable, and those of two syllables which end 
in y or le, that generally have these different forms. The ad- 
verb prefixed to an adjective should be parsed seperately. 
"This can hardly be called a variation of the adjective. The 
adverbs may with more propriety be parsed seperately." Brown, 

VERBS. 

85. Verbs which denote action, are called active verbs ; and 
verbs which denote being, are called neuter verbs. But this 
distinction need not be made in parsing, since it is rather log- 
ical than grammatical. Indeed, it is sometimes difficult to de- 
cide whether a verb does denote action or simply being. Thus 
the verb stand seems at first view to represent merely a state 
of being, but examination will show that there is action in it ; 
for we must exert our muscles to keep from falling, so that 
standing, in this sense is an act. Yet what purpose does it 
answer in grammar to decide whether it denotes being or ac- 
tion ? This will not effect the relations of words, or the man- 
ner of expressing a sentence. The only necessary distinction 
here, seems to be that oHransitive and intransiiive, for this is 
what affects the construction. This is the only distinction 
made by Noah Webster, and some other eminent grammari- 
ans, and answers every practical purpose. Most transitive 
verbs, of course, express action. "Verbs are of two kinds, 
transitive and intransitive." — Kirkham's Grammar, So also 
Alexander's Grammar, 

Some grammarians say that all verbs denote action ; but as 
we have shown, this point is unnecessary to be decided in 
grammar, although there may be some ground for the assump- 
tion. Others say that all verbs are transitive, affecting objects 
expressed or understood. Thus, if we say "I stand;" we 
mean " I stand or support myself." If we say "we are," we 
mean " we air ourselves ! " How philosophical this may be, 
we will not now decide ; but we leave it to plain common- 
sense men, to say if it is proper to be taught to children. Yet 
this is the result of boasted modern improvement, and is even 
now taught in some places in this country. 



78 APPENDIX. 

Some verbs really affect their objects ; as, "The man makes 
shoes ; " others merely have reference to their objects ; as, " John 
resembles George ; " "I have a book." 

Some persons speak of impersonal verbs ; as, it rains^ it 
snows. But the verbs are as evidently personal in this case, 
and have as regularly a subject, as in any other, and thus do 
not resemble Latin Impersonal verbs. All the indefiniteness 
of such expressions, arises from the use of the word it. See 22. 

93. If modes be the manner of representing the-verb, we see 
no good reason why participles should not be reckoned a mode. 
Are they not a manner of representing the verb ? And why 
should we have a certain number of modes, and then a name- 
less appendage, neither mode nor tense, under the name of 
participle ? " Participles are, in one sense, but a mere mode or 
form of the verb." — Prof Poncfs Grammar, 

96. It will be seen, that we consider the subjunctive not a 
mode, but a tvaij of using the other modes. A neglect of this 
principle has involved grammarians in many difficulties. They 
are at a loss how to dispose of such expressions as, "If I can 
come," " Though he should go," &c. because they are both 
subjunctive and potential. They have been obliged to exhibit 
ii^o/o?*?7i5 of the subjunctive mode. The first of these forms 
is the Indicative form of the Subjunctive mode 1 How much 
more simple to say that it is the indicative mode used suhjunc- 
tively or in a doubttful sense. The second of these forms is 
the Elliptical form of the Subjunctive 7node, about which, Green 
in a note of his grammar says; " This form of the subjunctive 
mode has should, or some other auxiliary understood." (p. 77.) 
Kirkham calls it the elliptical future, and says an auxilia- 
ry is always understood. How much more simple to say that 
it is the potential mode with the auxiliary understood. Thus 
we are freed entirely from the useless trumpery of a subjunc- 
tive mode, and are still left with three finite modes, which are 
as many as the Latin, French, and other languages possess. 
For further illustration of this point, see § 188 — 192, & 295, 

We say that the subjunctive is as much a kind of sentence as 
the affirmative, the negative, or the interrogative. And we say 
further, that if one is a mode, then the whole are modes ; if 
there is a subjunctive mode, then there is an affirmative mode, 
a negative mode, and an interrogative mode. If placing the 
conjuction i/* in the sentence, changes "I did go," to anoth- 
er mode ; then placing the adverb not in the same sentence, 
changes it to yet another mode. But every purpose is an- 
swered with far greater simplicity, by calling the sentence af- 
firmative, negative, interrogative, or subjunctive, as the case 
may be, and parsing the verb as indicative or potential, the 



APPENDIX. 79 

auxiliary of the latter being sometimes understood. For the 
cases when the auxiliary is best omitted, see 295. 

97. Though imperative implies a demand, yet this mode is 
used also for the humblest kind of entreaty ; as, " Forgive us 
our trespasses." 

104. Tenses are generally said to represent time merely. But 
if so, there could be but three tenses, as there are but three 
divisions of time. 

The common arrangement of tenses is very obscure and 
complicated. But liere, the very terms used explain them- 
selves ; the meaning of all the tenses is clearly exhibited in a 
single sentence ; the conjugation of the verb is made short 
and plain; the formation of the tenses is seen at a single 
view ; and the whole subject occupies two or three pages, 
instead of fifteen or twenty. We leave it for teachers and 
pupils to say if this method does not furnish the advanta- 
ges which we ourselves have derived from it, in our instruction 
of the young. 

109. What propriety is there in attributing time to the im- 
perative, infinitive, and potential modes ? Yet this is the 
common method. Is not the accurate distinction of these 
modes perfect and imperfect, 

" Participles do not, of themselves, express any particular 
time ; but they denote the state of being, action, or passion, in 
regard to its progress or completion. The participle in ing has 
been called present and active ; but its distinguishing character 
is that it denotes an unfinished and progressive state ; it is, 
therefore, properly called the imperfect participle. This name 
is adopted and defended by several of the most respectable 
grammarians ; as, Dr, Cromhe, J. Grants and T, D. Churchill, 
The particle in ed denotes completion, and is therefore denom- 
inated the perfect participle." — Kirkham's Grammar, " The 
most unexceptionable distinction which grammarians make 
between the participles, is, that the one points to the continua- 
tion of the action, &c., and the other to the completion of it. 
Thus, the present participle signifies imperfect action, or action 
begun and not ended ; the past participle signifies action 
perfected or finished." — Murray. The same reasoning will ap- 
ply to all other parts of the verb. 

114. In conjugating the verb, we deem it most simple to 
exhibit it by tenses merely, without reference to number and 
person. The personal variations are in English very few, and 
are most easily learned and understood, and most practically 
remembered by means of rules, as in 240, 241. The conjuga- 
tion is thus very much simplified and shortened, and yet more 
perfectly understood. 



80 APPENDIX. 

The second principal part, as it has no other parts formed 
from it, is sometimes called the preterit to distinguish it. See 
Brown^s Grammar, 

118. It is commonly said that the potential mode has no 
future tenses. But are not future events represented as often 
comparatively in the potential as in the indicative ? Green, 
in his grammar, after making the abovementioned statement, 
says that shall and will may be considered as sometimes be- 
longing to the potential mode, (p. 38.) We therefore use them 
in conjugating both modes. 

When do shall and will denote simple futurity^ and when 
determination ? Ans. — Shall, with the first person, and will 
with the other persons, denote simple futurity ; ivill, with the 
first person, and shall with the other persons, denote determin- 
ation ; as, 1 shall go, you will go, he will go, indicative ; / will 
go, you shall go, he shall go, potential. But in interrogative and 
subjunctive sentences, this rule does not always hold; as, shall 
we go, if he will go. The expression ivill have is not used in 
subjunctive sentences. 

121. Some are in the habit of calling the passive form of 
expression an additional kind of verb, under the name of pas- 
sive verb, or passive voice, and conjugating it throughout as 
such. But it is no more necessary to do this, than it is to call 
* I am moving,' an additional kind of verb, and conjugate it as 
such — or to call ' I am ashamed' still another kmd of verb. It 
is far more simple to remember, that in each of these cases we 
have merely the verb to be united to a participle or an adjec- 
tive, and that these are all forms of expression, not different 
kinds of verbs. " What is called the passive verb is not 
properly a distinct verb, but merely a particular form of the 
active verb." — Pond'^s Murray^s Grammar, "In English, we 
have no passive verbs. That form of expression, which an- 
swers to the Greek and Latin passive verbs, is made by the 
combination of a helping verb and a participle of the past 
time." — Alexander's Grammar. We thus free our grammar 
from the whole confusion and unnecessary prolixity caused by 
the passive conjugation. But some seem to delight in making 
any subject which they teach appear large and important, and 
especially to clothe the simple English tongue with all the 
formality and circumstance of ancient, learned, dead langua- 
ges! But the principles of mode, tense, &c., which we have 
given, are analagous to the principles of those languages, and 
we are in error, if their grammars would not be much simpli- 
fied by a little improvement in these respects. Certain it is, 
that no one need fear, that by the study of the verbs as here 
unfolded, he will be at all unfitted to engage in the study of 
the dead languages. 



APPENDIX. 81 

Others, in this day of ultra improvement, are taking the oth- 
er extreme. Several grammars have appeared, which discard 
altogether the idea of any auxiliaries, and parse each part of 
the verb separately. Thus, in the sentence, " He will have 
been overtaken," will is considered the finite verb — have as in 
the infinitive without the sign /o, and governed by imll^ — heen 
as a perfect participle belonging to /?e, and overtaken also as a 
perfect participle belonging to he. Our objection to this is, 
that it is an extreme, — that it makes the conjugation of a verb 
convey no practical meaning, — that it is too close an analysis 
for the minds of youth, — and that it throws away those names, 
which are needed, if not to point out single ivords, yet still to 
designate different/orms of expression. We may philosophi- 
cally explain thai verbs are thus resolvable into their parts ; 
yet still there is a practical convenience in calling a certain 
form of words, always used in the same connection, either joe?- 
fect or imperfect, indicative or potential in meaning. We there- 
fore choose to hold a medium course ; to discard the verb to 
be, as an auxiliary, since to consider it in this light serves 
merely to confuse, — but to retain the other auxiliaries as such, 
since this manner of considering them will throw most clear 
and practical light upon their use. 

123. We have found this method of arranging the irregular 
verbs to take up less room than common, and to facilitate the 
memory and the understandnig of the pupil. We have not 
embraced in the list, such words as are obsolete or unallowa- 
ble, but have included all the irregular verbs now in good use. 
Most of them will be found to be of one syllable, and to have 
been derived from the Saxon. The whole number of verbs in 
English, is about 4300, of irregular verbs, 177. 

A few of these verbs need a remark. Let is much used in 
the imperative mode followed by the infinitive ; as, " Let him 
go ; " that is, " Let, (or allov/) thou him (to) go." Read and 
heat, though always spelled the same, are shortened in pronun- 
ciatioM in the second and third parts. Borne is the regular 
third part o?hear, to bring forth ; but horn is used as the pas- 
sive participle ; as, " America has home such heroes as are 
horn nowhere else." The auxiliary may, might, implies oppor- 
tunity or privilege ; can, could, implies power or liberty ; must 
implies obligation or necessity; ivoidd implies will; should 
implies duty or contingency ; have, had, implies completeness; 
do, did, implies certainty. Ought, is not used with auxiliaries ; 
quoth means the same as said ; lo ! means the same as hehold! 
beware is not used in the present indicative, or in the second 
and third parts. 

The nature of the English language and of the English peo- 
ple is such, as to tend constantly to the contraction of o«r 

7 



82 APPENDIX. 

words, especially the verbs. Thus the plural termination en 
has become entirely obsolete ; th or eth is no longer in common 
use ; ed is contracted in pronunciation, the ancient ys or is is 
changed to s or es, and is usually pronounced without an ad- 
ditional syllable; and the participial en is used less and less 
frequently. 

PARTICLES. 

126. These kinds of adverbs may be variously subdivided; 
as, adverbs of time present, past, future, indefinite, S^c. But it 
is thought unnecessary in a text book to go into all these little 
particulars, especially as they are observable to all, without 
remark. .." 

It might seem unnecessary to have adverbs of iijne, since 
we have tenses to our verbs to express time. But it will be 
remembered that tenses mark only the three grand divisions 
of time; and adverbs are needed to express more definitely 
the exact point of time intended. 

128. Most adverbs in ly have their degrees expressed by 
7nore, most, S^c. as, gently, more gently, most gently, 4'c. 

129. Relative pronouns and prepositions, as well as conjunc- 
tions, serve to connect, but this is not their peculiar office. 

130. Conjunctions are generally divided into copulative and 
disjunctive ; but more confusion than practical advantage 
seems to be derived from the division. We have therefore 
omitted it. See Webster^ s grammar. We have however placed 
the words in the usual order, so that those who choose, may 
make the distinction. 

131. The following are the principal words thus used : ^a/ler, 
again, also, hefore, besides, else, even, hence, however, moreover, 
nevertheless, otherwise, since, then, thtnce, therefore, till, until, 
ivhen, ivhere, wherefore, while or whilst^ — Brown, 

132. The primary object of prepositions, is to denote rela- 
tions o^ place. But they are also used figuratively to denote 
other relations, which bear some resemblance to that of place; 
as, "The rich are above the poor ;" "You are in danger." 

The same preposition may show a number of relations m 
different cases, as will be seen by the following meanings of 
the preposition /or. 

1. Because of; as, " Praise him for his goodness." 

2. For the sake of; as, " He did it for me." 

3. In favor of; as, " He is for me." 

4. For the purpose of; as, ''It vvas made for sailing." 

5. In exchange for; as, " He took money /or his goods." 

6. With regard to ; as, " For me, I am poor." 



APPENDIX. 83 

7. .^5 ; " Let him go for an infidel." 

8. By means of; as, " If it were not for him." 

9. Toward ; as, " He sailed for China." 

10. In search of; as, " We went for wealth." 

11. JVotwithstanding ; as, " For all that, you are poor." 

12. In proportion to ; as, " He is large for his age." 

13. During ; as, "He serves for life." 

14. I long for; as, " O, /or better times." &c. &c. 

135. The following are some of the principal expressions of 
emotion. 1. Joy — hey ! io ! O ! ha, ha, ha ! 2. Sorrow — oh ! 
eh ! ah ! alas ! alack ! 3. Wonder — heigh ! oh ! ah ! hah ! 
strange ! 4. Aversion — pugh ! poh ! pshaw ! pish ! tush ! foh ! 
fie! off! begone! 5. Calling — O! ho! soho ! hollo! lo ! be- 
hold ! hark ! look ! see ! hush ! hist ! hum ! 6. Exultation — 
aha ! huzza ! hey day ! hurrah ! 7. Salutation — welcome ! hail ! 
all hail ! farewell ! adieu ! 

Yes ! and JVb / are commonly reckoned adverbs ; but they 
are mere cries of assent and dissent, and are more properly 
called interjections. Do they ever qualify anything 7 

PHRASES. 

137. A phrase may be parsed as a single word ; but it is 
better, when it is possible, to analyze it more particularly. 
There are some irregular expressions in every language, which 
cannot be explained upon the principles of grammar. Custom 
has made them correct, and all we can say of them is, that 
they are idiomatical phrases. Such are the following ; methinks, 
thinks /, than whom. 

DERIVATION.- 

Inseperat>Ie Prepositions. 

169. These are derived chiefly from other languages, but 
have each a distinct meaning of its own. The following is a 
list of the principal ones, among which we have inserted some 
which are used also apart. 

A denotes on or in ; as, afloat, abed, 

A, ab, or abs, (Lat.) — from, away ; as absolve, 

A, (Greek,) — without; as, abyss, without bottom. 

Ad, (Lat.) — to, at ; as, adjoin. 

After — after ; as, afternoon, 

Amphi, (Gr.) — both ; as, amphibious, living both ways. 

Ante, (Lat.) — before ; as, ante-chamber, 

Anti, (Gr.) — against ; as, Antichrist, 

Apo, (Gr.) — from ; as, apostrophe, taken from. 



84 APPENDIX. 

Be — abundance ; as, helove, hedauh, 

Circum, (Lat.) — around ; as, circumnavigate. 

Com, con, co, co], (Lat.) — together ; as, cooperate. 

Contra, (Lat.) — opposite ; as, contra-distinguish* 

Counter, (Fr.) — opposite ; as, counter-balance. 

De, (Lat.) — down, from ; as, depart. 

Di, dis, (Lat.) — apart, not ; as, dissever, displease. 

Dia, (Gr.) — through ; as, diameter, measure through. 

E, ex, (Lat.) — out of; as, express. 

En, em, (Fr.) — in ; as, entangle. 

Enter, (Fr.) — between ; as, enter-lace. 

Epi, (Gr.) — upon ; as, epicycle, upon a circle. 

Extra, (Lat.) — without, beyond ; as, extraordinarily^. 

For — ^not ; as, forbid. 

Fore — before ; sls, foresee. 

Gain — against ; as, gainsay. 

Hyper, (Gr.) — over; as, hypercritical. 

Hypo, (Gr.( — under ; as, hypocritical. 

In, (Lat.) — in, not ; as, inlay, indecent. 

Inter, (Lat.) — between ; as, interjoin. 

Intro, (Lat.) — within ; as introversion. 

Miss — wrongly ; as, misinform. 

Meta, (Gr.) — change ; as, metamorphose, to change the shape. 

Ob, (Lat.) — before, against ; as, object, throw against. 

Out — beyond ; as, outrun. 

Over — over ; as, overlook. 

Para, (Gr.) — beyond, beside ; as, paragraph, written beyond. 

Per, (Lat.) — through ; as perfume. 

Peri, (Gr.) — around ; as, periwig. 

Post, (Lat.) — after ; as, post-existence. 

Pre, (Lat.) — before ; as, prescience. 

Preter, (Lat.) — beyond; bls, preteimatural. 

Pro, (Lat.)— before, forward ; as, promotion. 

Re, (Lat.) — back, again ; as, reprint. 

Retro, (Lat.) — back ; as, retrocession. 

Se, (Lat.) — apart ; as, secession. 

Semi, demi, hemi, (Lat.) — half; as, semicircle, demigod, hemi- 

Sub, subter, (Lat.) — under ; as, sub-deacon. [sphere. 

Super, (Lat.) — over, above ; as, superfine. 

Sur, (Fr.) — over; SiS, surpass. 

Syn, sym, syl,(Gr.) — with, together ; as, sympathy, feeling with. 

Trans, or tra, (Lat.)— over, beyond ; as, transplant. 

Ultra, (Lat.) — beyond ; as, ultra-marine. 

Un — not, &c.; b.s, unworthy, uneasy. 

Under — under ; as, undersell. 

Up — up ; as, uphold. 

With— against ; as, ivithstand. 



APPENDIX. 85 

Derivation of Saxon words* 

177. The following are the derivations of many of the 

smaller Saxon words. 

A, or an, ane, aen, one — from ananud, to add. 

The, se, see, te — from tliean^ to take. 

That, thaet, the — from thean, to take. 

Still — from stellan^ to put. 

Else — from alesan, to dismiss. 

Rather — comparative of rath, soon. 

And — from anad, ananad, to add to. 

If — from gif, gifan, to grant. 

Yet — from get, getan, to get. 

Eke, (also) — from eac, eacan, to add. 

Though — from thqfig, thafigan, to allow. 

But [conj.J — from hot, botan, to add. 

But [prep.] — from he-utan^heon-utan, to be out. 

Unless — from onles, onlesan, to dismiss. 

Less — from lesed lesan, to dismiss. 

Since — from sines or syne, seon, to see. 

Either — from cBgihei\ At—from aet. 

Above — from a, he, and ufa, high. 

About — from « and hout, limit. 

After — comparative of aft. 

Against— from on-geond, gone at. 

Amongst — from a and mongst, mixed. 

Beneath — from be and neath, low ; whence nether. 

Between — from be and twain, two. 

Betwixt — from be and a Gothic word, two. 

Beyond — from be and geond, geondan, to pass. 

By, hi, be — from beo7i, to be. 

Down — from du7i, low\ 

During — from dure, to last. 

From — from friim or fram, beginning. 

Up, upon — from ufon, high. 

Over — from ufera, higher. 

Through— from thorough, a door. 

To, trn^-from to and til, end. 

Toward— ^rom to and ward, ivardian, to look. 

Under (Du\ch) — from on-neder, or on-nether. 

With — from ivithan, to join. 

Fie ! — from^an, to hate. 

What — from qua that, hioa that, &c. 

I — written J, Y,y, i, ic, ich. My — 7711, min, mine, myne, my 72, 
Me — mee. We — wee. Our — ours, oxire, ure. All the pro- 
nouns were written thus variously. 

Needs is a contraction of need is ; prithee, of 7 pray thee ; 
alone, of all one ; only, of one like ; anon, of m 07ie (instant) ; 



86 APPENDIX. 

or, of other ; nor, of not or ; among", of amongst ; through, of 
thorough ; welcome, of well coine. 
Very is formed from the French, veray or vrai, true ; along, 
from a and long ; amid, from a and mid or middest ; before, 
from be and fore; concerning, from coneern ; excepting, 
Yvom except; round, from the adjective round; throughout, 
from through and out ; underneath, from under and neath ; 
within, from with and in ; without, from idth and out ; hey ! 
from high ; alas ! from the French helas ! alack ! from alas ! 
heyday! from high day I avaunt! from the French avant, 
before ; lo ! from look ; begone, from he and gone, &c. 
Some grammarians think that in parsing such words as the 
foregoing, we should follow the original Saxon meaning, call- 
ing that always a pronoun, but and if imperative modes, &c. 
But however philosophical this may be, we must, in instruct- 
ing youth, always go by the present ust and import of words ; 
and teach the language as it is, not as it was, remembering 
that a child should first learn the modern English, and after- 
wards may attend to the ancient Saxon. 

Derivation of Grammatical Terms. 

These are mostly from the Latin and Greek, as follows: 
Grammar, (Gr.) gramma, first principles. 
Etymology, (Gr.) etymon logos, science of roots. 
Syntax, (Gr.) sun taxis, uniting together. 
Orthography, (Gr.) orthos graphe, true writing. 
Prosody, (Gr.) pros odos, relating to odes. 
Adjective, (Lat.) adjicio, added to. 
Verb, (Lat.) verbum, a word {important.] 
Particle, (Ldit) particula, a small part. 
Noun, (Lat.) nomen, a name. 
Pronoun, (Lat.) pro nomen, instead of a name. 
Antecedent, (Lat.) ante cedo, going before. 
Subsequent, (Lat.) sub sequor, following after. 
Gender, (Lat.) gens, a kiad. 
Neuter, (Lat.) neither. 
Article, (Lat.) articulus, a small joint. 
Transitive, (Lat.) trans eo, passing over. 
Potential, (Lvii.) potens , powerful. 
Subjunctive, (Lat) sub jungo, subjoined. 
Adverb, (Lat.) ad verbum, added to a verb. 
Conjunction, (Lat.) con jungo, conjoining. 
Preposition, (Lat.) jore pono, placed before. 
Interjection, (Lat.) inter jicio, thrown between. 
Primitive, {L^t) primus, the first. 
Attribute, (Lat) ad tribuo, applied to. 



APPENDIX. 87 

Complex, (Lat.) com pledo, embraced together. 

Analysis, {Gr.) ana lusis, taking apart. 

Parse, (Lat.) pars, a part. 

Ellipsis, (Gr.) eUeipsis, leaving out. 

Vowel, (Lat.) vocalis, vocal. 

Consonant, (Lat.) con sonans, sounding with. 

Labial, (Fr.) lips. Palatal, (Lat.) the palate. 

Lingual, (Lat.) lingua, the tongue. 

Dental, (Lat.) dens, a tooth. 

Aspirate, (Lat.) aspiro, to breathe. 

Dipthong, tripthong, (Gr.) two thongs, three thongs. 

Mono, dis, tris, polysyllable, (Gr.) one, two, three, many 

Punctuation, {Lq.\..) punctus, a point. [syllables. 

Parenthesis, (Gr.) para en tithemi, placed w-ithin, 

Apostrophe, (Gr.) apo strepho, cut off. 

Caret, (Lat.) caret, it is wanting. 

Dieresis, (Gr.) dia aireo, take apart. 

Capital, (Lat.) caput, the head. 

Typography, (Gr.) tupos grapho, type writing. 

Chirography, (Gr.) cheir grapho, hand writing. 

Versification, (Lat.) verse making. 

SYNTAX. 

181. It is generally said that the subject of a verb consists 
always of a single word. The absurdity of this, will be seen 
from the following sentences; "Two and three are five;" 
" The king and queen are an amiable pair." If each substan- 
tive is to be taken separately as a subject, then " two is five," 
and " three is five ;" " the king is an amiable pair," and " the 
queen is an amiable pair!" Is it not plain that the verb agrees 
with both substantives together'? Otherwise it should be sin- 
gular ; and so in all cases of substantives connected by and. 
This is, in fact, one way of forming a plural. See § 50. 

184. It will be perceived that the explanation may be an 
explanation of time, place, quantity, object, &c. The object 
cannot properly be called one of the principal parts of a sen- 
tence ; as it belongs only to some sentences, and then is depen- 
dant on the verb which it modifies or explains. 

191. "The subjunctive may be signified by any conjunction, 
expressing a condition, doubt, supposition, &c. ; such as i/J 
though, although, lest, unless.'^ (See § 268.) " The subjunctive 
is always attended by another verb, and consequently is never 
used in a strictly simple sentence. As the indicative is chang- 
ed into the subjunctive by prefixing a conjunction, so the 
potential may in like manner be turned into the subjunctive." 
— Pond^s Murray's Grammar, 



88 APPENDIX. 

198. It is important to bear constantly in mind that grammar 
does not make the language, but the language makes gram- 
mar. The grammarian has no right to insist, in all cases, on 
the best methods of expression, but upon the best authorized. 
No matter how great the irregularity, if it is in universal, ap- 
proved use, it is grammatical. If the grammarian were allow- 
ed to make laws for the language, we might begin at the very 
foundation, and constitute a new and more a-ccurate alphabet; 
we might make a complete revolution, by simplifying orthog- 
raphy ; and the language would soon be no more uniform than 
are the systems of the thousand grammar makers. Wherein, 
then, it may be asked, is the difference in the rules, as given 
in different books ? We answer, if no errors are made, the 
difference consists, not in the nature of the principles, but in the 
manner of expressing and presenting them. We have here so 
expressed and classified them, as to make hut fourteen, instead 
of thirty or fiiiy general principles, and, we think, with per- 
fect clearness to the pupil. Let the examiner decide for 
himself. 

199. " Case, in English Grammar, is a name given to the 
relation which a noun has to other words in the same sen- 
tence." — Frosfs Grammar. We choose to uso^ the term sub- 
jective rather than nominative, because it is shorter, and be- 
cause it conveys its meaning by its sound, whereas the latter 
word meansj indeed, little or nothing in itself. It is generally 
said that there are but three cases, and then to make up for 
the defect, we are told that there is a nominative case absolute, 
and a nominative case independent. Are these not as distinct 
cases or relations of substantives as any of the others ? And 
is it not much simpler and shorter, to say merely absolute or 
independent case ? It will be seen, that fbr|simplicity, we use 
only the word absolute, as it is the shorter, and as the two 
words mean alike. By this arrangement, we are enabled to 
define each case exactly, and all the terms convey their own 
meaning. And by treating the subject here, the definition of 
each case becomes the syntactical rule for that case. What 
is the definition of a case or relation, but a rule ? 

In the ancient languages, cases were generally distinguish- 
ed by different terminations ; but in the modern, case is usual- 
ly determined by the situation of a word ; thus : — 

LATIN. ENGLISH. 

Nominative Dominus, The Lord reigns. Subjective. 

Genitive Domini, The Lord^s day. Possessive. 

Dative Domino, To the Lord. ? Oh'prti 

Accusative Dominum, Love the Lord. 3 * 

Vocative Domine, Oh Lord! ? .1 1 . 

Ablative Domino, The Lord reigning. ^ ^^ 



APPENDIX. 89 

201. We are told by some, that the possessive case is gov- 
erned by the following noun; but is such language intelligible 
to the young? The possessive case has very much the nature 
of an adjective, and such as prefer, can parse it as a possessive 
adjective formed from a substantive, and belonging to another 
substantive. " The possessive case is always an adjunct to a 
noun ; and some grammarians have classed it with the adjec- 
tives.^^ — Brown's Grammar, 

"This word, (John's,) which has been considered by many 
able grammarians, as a noun in the possessive case can be 
nothing more; (according to the learned HorneTooke's idea;) 
than a mere demonstrative possessive adjective, derived from 
the noun John, which by adding apostrophe 5, must be joined 
to a noun before we can get that word, which we can make 
the subject of discourse." — JVilbur and Bryanfs Grammar, 

Possession is frequently denoted by an o/" placed before the 
name of the possessor. 

206. Through a neglect of this remark, such words are 
eometimes parsed as a direct address, than which, nothing 
could be farther from the truth. Exclamations and titles may 
frequently be parsed by supplying some ellipsis ; but it takes 
much from their vivacity, and it is generally better to consider 
them absolute. 

208. The apostrophe and s are sometimes added to mere 
characters, to denote plurality, and not the possessive case ; as, 
two a^s, three b^s, four 9^s, 

210. But if a thing belongs to several individuals seperately, 
they should each have the sign ; as, " Henry's, William's, and 
Joseph's estates." Also, when words in apposition are quite 
distinct, the iSrst only may have the sign, and sometimes both ; 
as, " We staid awhile at Lyttleton's, the ornament of his 
country. " It is at Smith's, the bookseller's shop." In some 
cases it is preferable to avoid the possessive, and use q/* which 
answers the same purpose. Thus, " Dr. Pearson of Birming- 
ham's experiments," would better be, "The experiments of 
Dr. Pearson of Birmingham." It will be understood, that, in 
parsing such phrases, we are to parse each word without re- 
gard to the sign, considering it as the sign of the whole clause. 

214. Ye is sometimes, especially in comic writing, used as 
objective case ; as, " I tell ye." His was formerly used as the 
possessive of t7; as, "Look not upon the wine when it giveth 
his color in the cup," — Proverbs, The plural of the first per- 
son is sometimes used as singular, for the sake of modesty or 
dignity ; as, " We, emperor of Russia," &c. In the same man- 
ner ?/oi«, which was formerly plural only, has become singular 
also. Whose is properly the possessive of who^ but it is now 



90 APPENDIX. 

used as the possessive of which also ; and as that is always 
used instead of who or ivhichj whose is of course the possessive 
of that. 

The absolute case is in form like the subjective ; but me is 
used instead of / in an exclamation ; as, " Ah me 1 " " Me 
miserable ! " 

The words my, thy, 8^c. are by some said to be not possess- 
ive cases, but possessive adjectives. We reply, they are as 
much possessive cases as the words, JohrCs, Hennfs^ 8>fc, for 
they are used in the same w^ay exactly. But, as we have ob- 
served, all possessive cases may be called possessive adjectives, 
and are so called by some. If my, S^c, are called adjectives, 
then Joh'n's, ^c. should be treated in the same manner. 

'^ They ought to be classed w4th the personal pronouns. That 
principle which ranks them with the adjective pronouns, would 
also throw all nouns in the possessive case among the adjec- 
tives." — -Kirkham's Grammar, 

2] 5. The words mine, thine, fyc. are by some considered as 
possessive cases of the pronouns. But we have shown that 
my, thy, fyc. are the possessive cases ; and again, possessive 
cases always describe other substantives, but these do not. 
What does yours describe in the following sentence ? " This 
is my book and that is yours.^^ Or, as some express it, by 
what is yours governed ? It cannot be by hook, for how will 
it read — " that is yours book ? " It must be changed into the 
possessive case your, before it can be so parsed. Yours is ev- 
idently a compound word, equivalent to your hook, and may be 
parsed seperately by its constituent parts, or together as a 
compound pronoun. What should we think of parsing the 
French le mien, le tien, fyc. (which are equivalent to our mme, 
thine, ^c.) as possessive cases? '^ Mine, thine, ^c. are com- 
pounds, including both the possessive adjective and noun."— 
Wilhur and BryanVs Grammar, " These pronouns invariably 
stand for not only the person possessing, but also the thing 
possessed, which gives them a compound character. They 
may, therefore, be properly denominated compound personal 
pronouns, and they should, like the compound relative what 
be parsed as tw^o words." — Kirkham's Grammar, (See that 
grammar for a complete explanation of this subject.) 

218. The rule, a& thus expressed, becomes a general prin- 
ciple, (the appropriateness of which even a child can see,) em- 
bracing several similar cases. Is not this preferable to ma- 
king every case a rule, whose appropriateness we do not with- 
out some reflection perceive ? 

226. " The word which follows the verb, may be said to be 
in apposition with that which precedes it." — Brown's Gram- 



APPENDIX. 91 

227. A relative in the subjective case, is the subject of the 
nearest verb, and introduces a parenthetic clause ; as, " He, 
who did it, knew his duty." A personal pronoun does not al- 
ways agree in person with its antecedent; as, "John said, / 
will do it." When a pronoun will not make the sense clear, 
the noun must be repeated. Thus, " We see the beautiful 
variety of colors in the rainbow and are led to consider the 
cause of zf." [that variety.] 

228. Which was formerly applied to persons; as, "Our 
Father which art in heaven." — Bible, It is now also applied 
to young children, and to words which merely imply persons ; 
as, " The child ivhich was here ; " " The crowds which collect- 
ed. " As a definitive, it is applied to persons as often as to 
things ; as, " JVhich man came ? " 

The relative that is preferable to who or ivhich, in the fol- 
lowing cases : — 1. After the antecedent ivho ; 2. When the 
antecedent includes both persons and things ; 3. After a su- 
perlative, or the adjective 5rtme; 4. After an unlimited ante- 
cedent ; 5. After an antecedent introduced by the indefinite 
it; 6. Whenever the propriety of ti;/io or which is doubtful; 
as, ^' Who, that has sense, thinks so?" *' The woman and 
the estate, that became his portion ;" " He was the first that 
came ;" " He is the same person that I met before ;" " Thoughts 
that breathe ;" '* It was I that did it ; " The little child that was 
placed in the midst." 

229. " Things remarkable for power, greatness, or sublimity, 
are spoken of as masculine ; as, the sun, time, death, sleep ^ fear, 
anger, ivinter, war. Things beautiful, amiable, or prolific, are 
spoken of as feminine ; as, the 7noon, earth, nature, fortune, 
knowledge, hope, spring, peace.'^^ — Brown^s Grammar. 

230. It seems to be a great deficiency in our language, that 
we have not a pronoun of common gender, in the third person. 
W^e are obliged to use other pronouns, or to make a difl[icult 
and disagreeable circumlocution ; as, "he and she," &c. The 
deficiency also frequently leads to grammatical errors ; as, 
" Every one that do their duty," &c. Who shall have sufiicient 
authority to introduce a word to supply the defect ? Some 
such pronoun as se, (from the Latin,) would probably be the 
best, as it would resemble the sound of both he and she, and 
this is necessary in order to the introduction of such a word. 

233. '^ The small claims of the article to a separate rank as 
a distinct part of speech, ought not to be admitted in a scien- 
tific classification of words. A and the, this and that, ten, few, 
fourth, and many other words, are used to restrict, vary, or de- 
fine the signification of the nouns to which they are joined. 
They might therefore Avith propriety be ranked under the gen- 



92 APPENDIX. 

eral head of Resiridwes, Indexes, or Defining Adjectives,'''* — 
Kirkhani's Grammar, 

When an adjective or participle immediately follows a verb, 
it generally belongs to the subject of that verb ; as, "I am 
glad the door is made ivide? 

234. Adjectives seem also sometimes to qualify verbs ; as, 
" Open your hand ivide ;" " The apples boil sofV^ 

237. There seems to have been a general mistake in rela- 
tion to the comparative. It has been said that it ahvays com- 
pares two things, and that the latter term of comparison must 
always include the former. It will be seen that it is not so ; 
that there are two distinct uses of the comparative, which 
have heretofore been confounded. 

238. Generally a noun used in a limited manner, should 
have a definitive, but not when used in an unlimited manner. 
A title, when spoken of as such, should not have an article ; 
as, '•' The best men do wrong ;" "' Man is the noblest work of 
God ;" " The commission of Captain.''^ But after all, no exact 
rules can be given for the use of definitives ; good taste must 
be our guide. We must say, " We are in a hurtij ;" but not 
"We are in a haste." There is much diflference between 
" few men," " little care," and " a few men," " a little care ;" 
in the former case, we speak negatively ; in the latter, affirma- 
tively ; and the reason is, ihdii feiv and Utile, in the latter case, 
become nouns. See § 284. 

240. The regular way of changing the verb for thou, is to 
add est, or st when the verb ends in e. But as our language 
tends to contraction, st only may in any case be added, and 
an apostrophe inserted if a vowel is omitted ; as, thinkst, sayst, 
hidst, lov^st lov'^dst, slumberst, slumher'dst, (See Brown'^s Gram- 
mar.) This is especially the case in poetry. Dost, didst, hast, 
hadst, shall, wilt, mayst, canst, mightst, couldst, wouldst, shouldst, 
have now become permanent contractions ; must needs no 
change for thou. When the second part with st would sound 
too harsh, didst should be used ; as, thou didst arise, not thou 
arosest, 

241. The termination th is used only in the solemn style. 
Eth is ^dded, or th when the verb ends in e. Doth, hath, and 
saith have become permanent contractions. 

243. The verb he was formerly regular in the present ; as, 
"What be these two olive branches ? "—Zech. iv: 12. 

246. When subjects are connected by or or nor, it is best to 
place the plural one, if there is such, last. The speaker 
should always mention himself last ; as, " You or /must go ;" 
"He or they are coming." It is only when subjects are con- 
nected by or or nor, that the verb agrees with the last. When 



APPENDIX. 93 

they are connected by and not, as loell as, &c., it generally 
agrees with the first ; as, " Csesar, as well as Cicero, was ad- 
mired for his eloquence." 

247. General truths should usually be expressed in the pres- 
ent imperfect tense ; as, " He did not know that two and two 
make four ;" not made. 

248. Nothing seems to have confused grammarians more 
than the relations of infinitives in a sentence. Many tell us 
they are governed by other words ; but in what sense they are 
governed, is not fully explained. (By the way, this word gov- 
ern is rather a useless word in in grammar.) Greene says 
that " the infinitive mode may be governed by a verb, noun, 
adjective or participle," or may follow " almost any part of 
speech" ! Is this rule sufficiently definite to be understood by 
the young, or to be of any practical utility ? Smith says that 
*' the infinitive mode may follow verbs, participles, adjectives, 
nouns and pronouns, and than or as " ! Now what would be 
thought of our rule, if we should say, " Nouns may follow 
substantives, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, conjunctions, preposi- 
tions, or almost any thing else!" Yet no more definite than 
this are grammarians about the infinitive mode. Parker and 
Fox say that " the infinitive mode may be governed by a verb, 
a participle, a noun, or an adverb, or follow an objective case, 
or than or a5," &c. Brown says that " the preposition to gov- 
erns the infixuitive mode." Yet all these grammarians tell us 
that the infinitive sometimes is the subject of a verb, and 
sometimes is absolute or in the absolute case; and Pond, and 
Parker and Fox go so far as to say that the infinitive is some- 
times in the objective case. All our dificulties in relation to 
this mode are gone, when we learn, that the infinitive is always 
iKsed as a substantive, and is to be parsed in the same manner. 
"The rule which they [grammarians] give, is partial and often 
inapplicable ; and their exceptions to it are numerous and 
perplexing. They teach that at least half the different parts 
of speech frequently govern the infinitive ; if so, there should 
be a distinct rule for each. The infinitive is a mere verb, 
without affirmation; and, in some respects, resembles a noun. 
Itmay stand for a subject," &c. "In Latin, according to the 
grammars, the infinitive mode may stand for a noun in all the 
six cases ; and many have called it an indeclinable noun. See 
the Port Royal Latin Grammar, in which many constructions 
of the infinitive are referred to the government of a preposition 
understood." — Brown^s Grammar. "The infinitive is often 
akin to a substantive noun, and, both in English and Latin, is 
sometimes construed as such." — Dr. Blair. 

250, 253. " The infinitive modje does the office of a sub- 
8 



94 APPENDIX. 

stantive in the objective case ; as, " Boys love to play ;" that is, 
they love play." — Pond^s Murray, " Rule XX. The infinitive 
mode is sometimes used as the objective case, governed by an 
active verb, or a preposition." — Parker and Fox's Grammar. 
" The infinitive mode sometimes follows an objective case." — 
Id. " To appears to (influence the infinitive). The preposi- 
tion ahout often has influence upon the infinitive. The infini- 
tive is often used as the antecedent to a relative," — Alexander'' a 
Grammar, 

256. In this case, the words may be parsed together, or we 
may say, fo he is used as an adjective, belonging to the subjects 

257. A participle preceded by a possessive case or a defini- 
tive, is used as a substantive ; but, preceded by a subjective 
or objective case, it is used as a descriptive ; and care is to be 
used in choosing between these two constructions. We should 
say, "He felt his strength declining;" but, "He was sensible 
of his strength's declining." sometimes the sense requires 
that the participle be altogether avoided ; thus, "He mentions 
Newton's waiting a commentary," or " He mentions Newton 
writing a commentary," would better be, " He mentions that 
JVeivion ivroie a commentary. 

259. This construction should .be avoided, whenever it is 
possible. We should say, " The money was paid him," "This 
privilege was denied me ;" not, "He was paid the money," "I 
■was denied this privilege." 

262. " The almost Christian." In such cases, we may parse 
the adverb as qualifying the substantive, or as used as an ad- 
jective, or as qualifying a verb or participle understood. 

264. But the repetition of a negative strengthens the nega- 
tion ; as, 710, no, no. 

270. " Connected verbs may not always he in the same mode 
and tense. Hundreds of instances might be adduced, in which 
such verbs are not in the same mode and tense; as, "He 
vjould not come, but sent his brother ;" " I love you, and have 
provided for your education;" "We wa7it you hore, Rud shall 
send for you." — Pond's Murray. " In which situation it is not 
less apt to affect the sense of it ; and wa?/ still he considered," 
&c. — Gi^eene^s Grammar, p. 89. "Although this is a general 
rule,yet the best writers often deviate from it in their practice. 
It is often the ca«e that conjunctions connect dissimilar caseSp. 
modes, and tenses.''^ — Alexander'^s Grammar. 

271. The former word of the relation is sometimes under- 
stood ; as, [I say'] " In a word, it would not do." One prepo- 
sition is sometimes the object of another ; as, " And y?'om before 
the lustre of her face." — Thomson. This forms d^ prepositional 



APPENDIX. 95 

phrase. Sometimes for has no antecedent term of relation ; 
€LS, "jPor an old man to cheat, is pitiable." 

276. The following are the principal cases, in which the 
subject is not placed before the verb : — 1. In a question, unless 
the subject be an interrogative. '2, With the imperative mode. 

3. In expressing earnest feeling ; as, " May she be happy 1" 

4. In a subjunctive sentence without a conjunction ; as, 
" Were it true." 5. When preceded by neither or nor, signfy- 
ing and not ; as, " This was his fear ; nor was it groundless." 
6. When words are placed before the verb for emphasis ; as, 
"Here am /." 7. In a dialogue, with say, think, reply, ^lc, 
as, "^ Who are those,' said /le." 

277. The following are the principal cases, in which the 
adjective is placed after its substantive : — 1. When other words 
depend on the adjective ; as, "x4l mind conscious of right." 2. 
When the quality results from the action of a verb ; as, " Vir- 
tue renders life happy^ 3. For emphasis ; as, " Goodness 
infinite^ 4. When a verb comes between them ; as, " I grew 
uneasy^ 5. In many other cases in poetry ; as, " Isles Atlan- 
tic:' 

When words and clauses are connected by conjunctions, 
the longest and most sounding should generally be placed 
last; as, "He is older and more respectable than his brother." 

280. When power is denied, not is united to can ; but when 
something else is denied, the words are separate ; as, " He 
cannot go f "He can not merely go, but stay there." 

282. It will be found very important to attend to the subject 
of ellipsis; as many of the most important constructions are 
resolvable by it ; and by supplying ellipses, a great number of 
special and unnecessary rules are avoided. By this means, 
also, we arrive more clearly to the exact meaning and con- 
struction of language ; which, after all, is the great object of 
grammar. 

283. " Those parts which are common to several verbs, are 
generally expressed to the first, and understood to the rest ; as, 
*,He thought as I did [think] ;' * If you will go, I will [g*©].' " 
— Brown's Grammar, 

284. " A hundred years," " A great many men." We are 
generally told that such expressions are anomalies — exceptions 
to all rule — that a belongs to the plurals years and men ! So 
great belongs to men, making g7'eaf men ! Is this the idea ? It 
would be the same if little were inserted after many, — great 
little men! and a men ! Such is the accuracy of the systems 
which have been taught to our youth. — Few, many, little^ &c., 
when preceded by an article, generally become nouns ; and 
they are derived from words which were originally nouns. 



96 APPENDIX. 

" Some grammarians call these words of number nouns, and 
suppose an ellipsis of the preposition o/I"- — Broion^s Grammar, 
So also Webster, " The article a converts few into a noun." — 
Parker andFox^s Grammar, ''In these phrasesj/eii? and many 
seem to be used substantively, the preposition of being under- 
stood. Of is sometimes expressed after these vi^ords." — Prof 
Coolers Elements of Grammar, '' The words few and many in 
this case mean number, and the article agrees with this word 
number, which is understood, and which is singular."— Co6- 
heVs Grammar, The words dozen, score, hundred, million, &c. 
are never adjectives ; can you mention a case in which they 
are? 

290. Worth was anciently a verb, signifying he, and used in 
every part of the conjugation ; as, " Wo worth the chase, wo 
worth the day." — Scott. 

293. But when the subjects require different forms of the 
verb, it is best to express it after each ; as, " Either thou art in 
fault, or I am.'' 

295. Some call the verb, when the auxiliary is understood, 
the elliptical form of the verb. The whole theory of the sub- 
junctive is here developed in five lines. 

298. " They desired nothing more than to receive their wages. 
In sentences of this kind, the infinitive is properly governed 
by some word understood ; thus, Hhey desired nothing more 
than they desired to receive their wages.' " — Parker ar^ Fox's 
Grammar, " As many as {those persons are who^ were pres- 
ent." — id. 

Much might be added to Syntax, as is frequently done, in 
relation to style in general, and the beauties of writing. But 
all these things belong to Rhetoric, and we choose to leave 
them in their appropriate place, rather than to crowd every 
thing together in a single book. Rhetoric should be more 
studied in our schools, but it should be as a separate branch, 
rather than as a mere division of grammar. The author has 
already prepared the outline of a higher work on language, 
which work, if the present meets with encouragement, may at 
some future day appear. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 

340. The rules of spelling, as commonly given, are so long 
as to be seldom remembered and applied. We have very 
much shortened the manner of expression, and have added 
one or two new rules. 

378. We have labored to make punctuation as concise and 



APPENDIX. 97 

comprehensive as possible ; yet we think that under our three 
general rules, we embrace all common cases. It is useless to 
endeavor to load the mind with a mass of nice distinctions. A 
few general rules, with judgment, Avill be of much greater 
service. 

387. Some persons never put a comma before an and ; but 
this is very inaccurate, and often leads to error in the meaning. 
See Kirklmm'^s Grammar, 

397. Many use the other marks after the periods in this 
case ; as, Prov., June 4, But this is unnecessary. 



PROSODY. 

437. It is sometimes said, that after all, reading must be 
different from speaking, and must have its peculiar tones. We 
grant that reading is almost universally different from speak- 
ing ; but we think it is a fault, and that no one can read j[?er- 
fectly^ until he can read exactly as he would properly converse. 

533. It will be perceived that we have divested versification 
of the technicalities of the ancient languages, and have ex- 
pressed it in plain English. How much have our youth been 
accustomed to profit by the barren study of dactyls and pyrrhuses, 
when they were altogether unacquainted with the Latin and 
Greek ? Here, as in other places, some have labored to clog 
our grammars with all the formality of the ancient tongues ; 
but it is time for these things to come to an end. 

544. The omission of initial letters, is sometimes called 
apheresis ; of middle letters, syncope ; of final letters, apoco- 
pe ; dis^^neath, medicine, tho\ Prefixing an expletive syllable, 
is called prosthesis ; inserting a word, tmesis ; annexing an ex- 
pletive syllable, paragogl ; as, 6estrown, to us ward, withouten. 
Uniting two syllables into one, is called syneresis ; as, seest^ 
for scSst, These are all considered as figures^ or deviations 
from the common forms of speech. 



8* 



PART SECOND; 

CONTAINING QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES, 



AND BEING 



AN ADAPTATION OF THE PRECEDING WORK 



TO THE USE OF SCHOOLS. 



THE NUMBERS CORRESPOND TO THOSE OF THE GRAMMAR. 



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TS G O *-• 
CO « cd 
— ' O O rf a, 

H- 1 . 0) CD ^ 

C b M 

W "-C oj Q- >-• 

^ C^ O 

00^* ^ 

<-( W G-^ O 

a> G ^ 



FIRST COURSE. 



QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 

FOR BEGINNERS. 



TO THE SCHOLAR. 

My Young Friend : — 

You are about entering upon a study, which, if right- 
ly pursued, is one of the most useful and interesting in 
which you can engage. It is the study of language ; it 
is learning how to express our thoughts so that they may 
be easily understood, and may sound agreeable to those 
who hear. 

What should we do without language ? We could not 
talk to our friends, and tell them of our joys and our sor- 
rows, our wants and our wishes. We could have no 
books, no schools, no meetings. We could know noth- 
ing of all that has ever taken place in the world, or of 
all that is going on beyond our sight. We could not be 
instructed in the way to be virtuous, to be useful, to be 
healthy, and to be happy forever. How unfortunate 
should we be ! and how grateful ought we to feel for the 
blessing of language ! 

But all language is not alike. When men at first be- 
gan to speak, they could not talk nearly as well as they 
can now. And when they first wrote, it was merely by 
drawing rough pictures on bark or leaves, or by scratch- 
ing a few crooked marks on wood or rocks. They had 



102 TO THE SCHOLAR, 

no printing, no books, no ink, no paper, no letters. It 
has been by learning a little at a time, and by studying 
what others have learned, that men have made language 
so extensive and so correct as our own English is. And 
now, if we will only learn ^ we may have words to say 
any thing we wish to say, and correctly too ; and we may 
write down our thoughts upon paper, without the least 
error or difficulty. 

But in order to do this, we must learn it. The little 
child, when he begins to talk, does not speak very cor- 
rectly. Sometimes he pronounces words improperly, 
sometimes he uses the wrong words, and sometimes he 
does not know what words to use. As he grows older, 
he learns more ; but still he makes many mistakes, and 
learns many incorrect expressions from grown people 
who do not speak rightly. He must therefore study 
Grammar, and if he attends to it well, it will teach him 
to avoid all these errors. 

You will hear many persons say, " I had rather not 
go."" " I done it yesterday." " You had ought to stay." 
'' This is the roundest apple." '' Who did you speak to ?" 
" He has got it." '' It lays on the table." Now all these 
expressions are wrong, and many others that are often 
used. Grammar will teach you how to avoid them ; and 
certainly you would not wish, when you associate with 
intelligent people, to appear so ignorant as to make such 
gross mistakes. 

Is not Grammar then a useful and interesting study ? 
That you may attend to it so diligently as to find it such, 
and that you may reap the full reward of your labor in 
after life, is the sincere wish of 

Your Friend, 

The Author. 



EXERCISES. 103 

ETYMOLOGY, 

Lesson I. — Nouns. 

Questions. — 13. What are nouns ? Mention some 
names of persons^ of places^ of things ; of things that you 
can see, taste^ hear^ smell., feel ; of things that you can 
merely think of such, as, love, greatness. As all the 
words you have mentioned are names, what are they call- 
ed in grammar ? Do you know of anything that has not 
some kind of a name ? Are there then many or few 
nouns ? Can you talk Vv^ithout using nouns ? What is 
parsing? (See 197.) Parse the following words : 

[Parse thus ; — " Man is a noun, because it is a name." " Though is not a noun, because it i« 
not a name."] 

Exercise. — Man, though, book, as, the, John, tree, 
houses, should, Mary, where, fan, Bangor, into, odor, 
thought. 

Lesson IL— Nouns. 

Questions. — 13. How many kinds of nouns are there } 
What are they } 14. What is a proper noun } 15. A 
commo7i noun ? 18. An ahstract noun ? Mention some 
proper names of persons ; common names of persons ; 
proper n^vae^ of places; comraon nmnes of places; 
proper names of things, such as April, Monday ; common 
names of thing's. Mention some ahstract nouns. With 

o 

what kind of a letter doe_s a proper name begin ? Parse 
the following words : 

[Parse thus : " JVfon is a noun, because it is a name — common, because it is the name of a whok 
class.] 

Exercise. — Man, book, John, tree, houses, Mary, fan, 
Bangor, odor, thought, flower, wisdom, beauty, Newcas- 
tle, justice. 

Lesson III. — Pronouns. 

QuESTONs. — 20^. What are pronouns 7 Wliat then 
does pro mean } W^hat is the use of pronouns t How 
many kinds of pronouns are there } What are they } 
21. What are personal pronouns } How many are there ? 



104 EXERCISES. 

What are they ? (What is in the parenthesis need not be 
recited.) 23. What are relative ipronouns ? How many 
are there ? What are they ? 27. What is the word for 
which a pronoun stands called ? Pick out the nouns and 
pronouns in the following sentences, and parse them : 

[Parse thus : " WJio is a pronoun, because it is used instead of a noun — relative, because it 
relates directly to the antecedent jnan.] 

Exercise. — The man who did this. The boy that 
studies. The dog which barks. A woman came with a 
gun to a man, and giving it up, said she thought he was in 
danger of the wolves who were coming, as they were 
very hungry. John said to James, '^ I will tell you di- 
rectly." 

[Read the last two sentences, uaing the antecedents instead of the pronouns, and see how much 
repetition is caused.] 

Lesson IV. — Person. 

Questions. — 11. What are nouns and pronouns to- 
gether called ? What then are substantives 1 28. What 
belong to substantives ? 29. When is a substantive said to 
be of the first person ? 30. When of the second ? 32. 
When of the tliird 1 What is the only word properly of 
the first person ? What the only two of the second ? 
What words are of the tliird person ? 33. Of what person 
are ivlio and that ? 34. When is a noun put in the second 
person ? Parse the following substantives : 

[Parse thus : " Man is a substantive, because it represents a person (11.)— a noun (R.)* — com- 
inon (R.) — third person, because it is spoken about." " He is a substantive (R.) — a. pronoun (R.) — 
personal (R.) — third person (R.)— with its antecedent man." Only the words in Italics are to be 
parsed.] 

Exercise. — The man said he would go. John said to 
Janies^ " I will tell you directly." I who come. Thou 
loho comest. He who goes. / that go. Thou that goes. 
She that goes. It is a dollar. Henry., I want you to go 
with haste to Jarnes and see if he has given Mary^ loho is 
going, the hook tvhich she wished. 

Lesson V. — Number. 

Questions. — 35. How many numbers have substan- 
tives ? What are they ? What does the singular number 
denote.^ — the plural ? 36. How do most nouns become 

* (R.) denotes that the reason is to be given. 



FIRST COURSE. 105 

plural ? Mention some nouns that are singular ; some that 
are plural. 47. What can you say of the numbers of the 
relative pronouns 7 Mention some nouns of which this 
is true. How is a pronoun's number known ? 49. What 
is the plural of 17 — of thou 7 — of you 7 — of /le, sAe, and 
it 7 Parse the following substantives : 

[Parse thus: ^^ Bench is Si substantive (R.)— a. noun (R.)~ common (R.) — third person (R.) — 
singular, because it denotes but one." '• TTiey is a substantive (R.) — pTonoun (R.)— personal (R.) 
—third person (R.)— plural (R.) — ^with iis antecedent boys."] 

Exercise. — Bench, rules, pens, chair. The hoys say 
they will go. William said to George, " I was with yoic, 
when you said I knew we w^ere in fault. ^'' Ye hypocrites ! 
Thou spirit of darkness ! The man loho thinks he knows. 
The men iclio think they know. The icomen that think 
tliey ought. The cldld that thinks it ought. The thing 
ivhich is. The things ichicli are. You are the friend of 
virtue. You are the friends of goodness. 

Lesson VI. — Gender. 

Questions. — 51. When is a substantive said to be of 
the masculine gender } 52. When of the feminine 7 
53. When of neuter "7 54. When of common gender } 
Mention some nouns that are masculine — feminine — neuter 
— common. 55. Of w^hat gender is he 7 — she 7 — it 7 — 
I, thou, you, ivho 7 — ivhich, that 7 Of what gender is a 
pronoun always ? Parse the following substantives : 

[Parse thus: "^ojrs isa substantive (R.) — a.noun (R.) — common(R.) — thirdperson (R,)—plv,ral 
(R.) — masculine, because it represents males," " They is a substanlive (R.)-^a pronoun (R.)— 
personal (R.)— third person (R.) —plural (R.) — masculine (R.)— with its antecedent boys."] 

Exercise. — The hoys say they will go. William and 
Mary are on the road. The 7nan thinks he will come. 
The lady thinks she shall go. This hook has a spot on it. 
Joseph said to Nancy, " / want you to go." Nancy re- 
plied, " /want you to stay, for we cannot both go." Thou 
spirit of wickedness ! Ye sons of virtue ! The hoy 
who did this. The girls who did this. The lads that 
study. The Miss that studies. The ox which pulls. 
The coios which come. The tree lohich stands. 

Lesson VII.— Review. 

Questions. — What are names called } — words used 
9 



106 



EXERCISES. 



instead of nouns ? — Nouns and pronouns together ? What 
is the name of an individual object called? — of a class 
of objects ? — of a quality J What is the use of pro- 
nouns ? What are pronouns that show the exact person 
called ? — those which relate directly to their antecedents ? 
How many pronouns in all ? How many persons are 
there ? — numbers ? — genders 7 Of what person is the 
speaker ? — the person spoken to ? — the person or thing 
spoken about ? Of what number is one object ? — more 
than one ? Of what gender is a male ?—a female ? — 
neither ? — either ? Of what person are nouns generally ? 
What effect does it have on a noun to add s 7 How are 
the person, number, and gender of a pronoun known ? 
(227.) 

EXERCISE. — Tell what word holongs in each of the s-^juarcs of the following table ; or, if it i* 
preferred, copy the table, and put the proper words in it. 

Table of Pronouns. 



i 


PERSONAL. 


RELATIVE. 


1 Per 2 Per. j^^^^ ^^^^ | ^^,^ 


Singular,.. 1 3 5 [ 7 9 | 11 13 15 | 17 


Plural...... 2 4 6 8 10 | 12 14 16 18 



Supply a substantive in each of the following blanks^ 

so as to make sense : A good . Sweet . 

is wrong. are red. These are round. That 



studies. The 



who has her 



have a 



stick 
little 



- best, shall 

The boy is studious ; will have his 

is industrious will prosper. The 

you hold is long. Sit down by my , my 

: wish to tell a . 



The man 



Lesson VIII. — Definitives.* 

Questions. — 57. What are Adjectives 7 Then which 
of the following words is an adjective ? Come^ little boy. 
Should you think adjectives are much used ? What do 
adjectives include. 59. What are definitives 7 60. Men- 
tion the definitives which are singular \ — -plural ; — of either 



* This lesson may be divided. 



FIRST COURSE. 107 

number. 61. When does an become a 7 Give one or 
two examples. 71. How may most definitives be used ? 
Parse the following words : 

[f*arse a definitive thus : " A is an adjecdoe, b.^caiise it is added to a substantive— a definitive, 
because it de&nes^ singular, because it defines one object.] 

Exercise. — A dog. A horse. An hour. An owl. 
A nuisance. The hat. The books. One day. Another 
year. These tables. Much money. Any men. Other 
people. This week. That pen. Those thoughts. Both 
girls. The second time. Two wings. No virtue. The 
very quality. The same coat. Several fences. Many 
pages. Every other time. All such ladies. AVhat eyes ! 

For Correction. — An hard saying. A humble heart. 
An heavenly diadem. An wonderful invention. An 
younger man. An handsome child. A hostler. An 
hero. Such an one. An union. 

It will be seen that the words ivJiich and that may be 
either relative pronouns or dejinitives. Which are they 
in the following expressions ? The dog which barks. 
Which dog ? The man that^ stands. That man. Which 
one is it ? The one which is here. That boy that did it. 

Lesson IX, — Descriptives. 

Questions. — 72, What are descriptives ? Give two or 
three examples. 74. What do many descriptives have ^ 
75. What does the positive form represent? 76. The 
comparative ? 77. The superlative ? Give an example 
of each. 78. How are the comparative and superlative 
formed ? Tell the three forms of the following words : 
Great, vast, sweet, sour, white, noble, feeble, red, blue, 
poor, sick, nice. Parse the following : 

[Parse the descriptives thus : " Wise is an adjective (R.) — a descriptive, because it describe! — 
positive, because the quality is in its simple state."] 

Exercise. Wise men. Taller trees. The whitest 
house. The greatest purity. Small hands. The same 
old field. The reddest clouds. A splendid view. A 
grander scene. That very cat. The sublimest vision. 
Sweeter apples. 

Supply an adjective in each of the following blanks : 
men. man. • boy. days are 

* That is a relative when it can be changed to ivho or which. 



108 EXERCISES. 

twice days. thoughts. The time. 

very day. Every tree. All pens. The 

and sun is very — — . hour brings 

blessing from our father. 

Lesson X, — Verbs. 

Questions. — 85. What are verbs? Then, which of 
the following words is a verb ? '' The boy writes." Can 
you make a sentence without a verb ? Can you make a 
sentence without an adjective ? Then which are more 
important, adjectives or verbs ? Mention a verb which 
denotes being; some which denote action. How many 
kinds of verbs ? What are they ? 86. What is a tran- 
sitive verb ? 87. An intransitive verb ? Give an exam- 
ple of each. 91. What are auxiliary yerhs ? Name 
them. Are auxiliary verbs used alone ? Parse the fol- 
lowing : 

[Parse the verbs thus : •' Studies is a verb, because it denotes action — transitive, becavtse it aSects 
the object, book.'' " Will isa verb (R.) — auxiliary, because it is a part of the verb go.'' '• Will 
go is a verb," &c.] 

Exercise. — George studies a book. He will go. Some 
men love rum. Health is a great blessing. We must 
love virtue. I can move this stone. She likes play. 
Fishes fill the sea. Oceans exist. The trees have stood. 
These are the books. William struck his brother. Jo- 
seph is a good boy. I hope he will be a good man. 

Lesson XL — Modes. 

Questions. — 93. What are modes ? How many ? 
What are they ? 94. What does the indicative mode do ? 
95, The potential ? 97. The imperative ? Give an ex- 
ample of each. Parse the following : 

[Parse the verbs thus j " Can go is a. verb (R.) — intransitive (R.)-^otential, because it implies 
power."] 

Exercise. — You can go. Hove play. George, study 
the book. You must study. We will take care. They 
may retire. He who is just will prosper. Go, little lamb. 
Thou shalt do it. Virtue should have its reward. Speak ! 
I will hear. 



fikst course. 109 

Lesson XIL— Modes. 

Questions. — 98. What does the infinitive mode do ? 
99. The participial ? 100. Tlie participial active .^ 101. 
Passive 1 Give an example of each. How may infini- 
tives generally be known '\ How participles '\ What 
nature have these two modes l What are the other 
modes called 1 Why 1 Parse the fi^llowing : 

[Parse the participial mode thus : " Walking is a verb (R.) — intransitive (R.) — participial (R.) 
aclive, because it represents a thing; as really actings" Remember that the verb be (am, is, are, vms, 
%D€re,) is not an auxiliar>' ; but being may be regarded as one.] 

Exercise, — He was walking. To walk is good exer- 
cise. I was [being] wounded. They are coming. I 
wish to take it. You maybe excused. He, being called, 
came. We, having arrived, were requested to return. 
Take this book, William, I would ask you to come. 

Lesson XIII — Tenses. 

Questions. — 104. What are tenses 1 105. How ma- 
ly divisions of time 1 What two tenses have each divis- 
on 1 106. H^ow many tenses in all '\ Name then. 107. 
Tow do the imperfect tenses represent a being or action 1 
— the perfect ? 108. How may the perfect tenses be 
known 1 Give an example of a perfect and an imperfect 
tense. 109. Which modes have all the tenses ^ What 
can you say of the other modes 'I Parse the following : 

[Parse the verbs thus: " Studies is a verb (R.) — transitive (R.) — indicative (R.) — imperfect, 
because it represents the action as unfinished —present, because it implies present time," " Walking 
is a verb (El.) —intransitive {R.) ^participial (Pi..)— active {R.)~ imperfect (R.)''] 

Exercise. — George studies a book. He was walking. 
They have gone. To write. Having come. He might 
go. They seem to have hurried. Mary had arrived. 
Stop ! boy ; hold this horse. You might have studied. 
John was struck. She will have finished. He who is 
just will prosper. I shall stay. The old house must have 
been crowded. 

Lesson XIV. — Conjugation. 

Questions. — 113. What is called conjugating di verb! 
114. In the indicative mode, what is the imperfect past of 
move '] — the imperfect present 7 — -the imperfect future ? 
9'^ 



110 EXERCISES. 

the perfect past ? — the perfect present l — ^the perfect fu- 
ture I &c. &c. Let the whole verb be thus reviewed, 
both in direct and in promiscuous order. 

Exercise. — Conjugate the verb move^ thus : " Imper- 
fect ; indicative past, did move^ or moved — present, do 
move^ or move — future, shall or will rnove ; — potential past, 
&c. Conjugate thus the verbs love^ ivalk^ liate^ dread^ 
ivish, BE. (See 116, and 243.) 

Lesson XV. — Principal Parts. 

Questions. — 110. How many principal parts has eve- 
ry verb '\ How are they marked in the table % What 
are formed from these ^ 111. What from the first part '1 
— what from the third 1 Are any formed from the sec- 
ond part ^ 1 12. What parts are generally alike 1 When 
is a verb said to be regular 7 — when irregular ? Give 
an example of each, 114. How is the indicative im- 
perfect future formed? &c. Parse the following: 

[Parse the verbs thus : " Will have moved is a verb (R.) — intransitive (R.) — legular, because its 
three parts are move, moved, moved— indicative (R.)— perfect (R.)— future," (R.)] 

Exercise.— He will have moved. Virtue will receive 
a reward. I dislike an oath. Bright shines the rising 
sun. They are thought to have perished. He requested 
to be permitted to leave. John has found the pen. All 
those boys who can recite may raise the right hand. The 
little girl that v/e passed attends that school. Dogs which 
are cross deserve chastisement. Go, little kid ; go seek 
the fold. I could have seen James walking. 

Supply a verb in each of the following blanks : Men 

— — . The boy . Who a knife 1 John 

Thomas. Thomas by John. He expects 

next week. Come, the lambs play. He -« — - 

have deceived. I — — yesterday. I — to-day. 

I — -^ to-morrow. You must — ~ before he ar- 
rives. You must — ^ — ' when he arrives. 

Lesson XVL — ^Adverbs and Conjunctions. 

Questions. — 124. What are particles ^ What do par- 
ticles include 1 125. What are adverbs ? Mention one 



FIRST COURSE. Ill 

or two. 129. What are conjunctions 1 130. Repeat the 
principal conjunctions. Parse the following : 

[Parse a particle thus : " Very is an adverb, because it is added to an adjective to qualify its 
meaning."] 

Exercise.— He is very kind and obliging. They are 
now here, studying very diligently. Thou and he are 
happy, because you are good. A most skilful artist. 
They act more kindly. He labors harder and more suc- 
cessfully than I do. When are you coming ? 

Supply an adverb in each of the following blanks : — 

He reads . She writes very — — . We came 

late. I was coming, I sweat . She will 

go . This water is pure than that. I was de- 
lighted to see him jump — . 

Supply a conjunction in each of the following blanks : 

He is tall slim. He reads well, does not 

spell properly ; he spells better you. I shall 

not go, it is wrong. she he was there. 

he slay me, I will trust in him. he 

she were there. 

Lesson XVII. — Prepositions and Interjections. 

Questions. — 132. What are prepositions ? 133. Re- 
peat the principal prepositions. 135. What are interjec- 
tions 7 Name several. Parse the following : 

Exercise. — The paper lies before you on the desk. 
Oh ! what will become of such persons ! He boasted of 
the privilege, and contended for it. Alas ! how much 
vanity in the pursuits of men ! 

Supply a preposition in each of the following blanks : 

Plead the dumb. Qualify yourself action 

study. Think often the worth time. Live 

peace — — all men. Keep com.pass. Many 

fall grasping things their reach. A doz* 

en ^ggs- A few — them. A few years. 

I will write to-morrow. He lent -• me some 

money. It is worthy your regard. This is like 

that. He jumped off the fence, and went 

down the street. 



112 exercises. 

Lesson XVIIL — Different uses of words. 

QuESTONS. — 145. How may many words be used ? 
146. When do substantives become adjectives ? 147. 
When do adjectives become substantives? Parse the 
following : 

[Parse thus: " Water is a substantive used as an adjective, because it describes."] 

Exercise. — Water-pail, sugarloaf, velvet cushion, sea- 
water. Each of the brothers. Neither of them is in- 
dustrious. What are you doing. That is too bad. A 
great calm. A calm day. To calm a storm. Damp 
air. Guilt casts a damp over the spirits. Soft bodies 
damp the sound. A little is sufficient. A little boy. 
The hail was very destructive. A hail storm. We hail 
you as friends. All hail ! my friends. Every being 
loves its like. Make a like space between the lines. I 
like it. Behave like men. Still waters. To still a tu- 
mult. He labors still. This is my own house, for I own 
this house. A strange thought, I thought so. He is in 
the wrong. Wrong actions. You wrong yourself. 

Lesson XIX.— Review. 

Questions. — 4. What is that part of Grammar to 
which you have now been attending called ? Of what, 
then, does Etymology treat ? 5. Into how many general 
classes may words be divided ? What are they ? What 
are substantives .^ — adjectives ? — verbs ? — particles ? How 
many kinds of substantives ? — of adjectives ? — -of verbs ? 
— -of particles ? &c. &c. 



SYNTAX. 

Lesson XX. — Subjects and Attributes. 

Questions. — 179. Of what does Syntax treat ? 180. 
What is a sentence ? What is the subject of a sentence ? 
Of what does it consist ? " The boy studies " — which 
word is the subject ? 182. What is the attribute of a 
sentence } Of what does it consist } '' The boy studies " 
— which word is the attribute } Point out the subjects 



FIRST COURSE. 113 

and attributes in the followiug sentences, and give the 
reasons : 

Exercise. — Jane writes. The ox draws. The old 
house totters. The tree on the hill is old. Susan and 
Nancy walk. You and I are two. Two and three make 
five. They walk very fast. He was studying his lesson 
under the shade of a tree this morning. A very good 
boy studies his book very diligently. I am very anxious 
to obtain it. A great house. Arrived yesterday, from 
the West Indies, with sugar and molasses. 

Lesson XXI. — Descriptions and Explanations. 

Questions. — 183. What is the description in a sen- 
tence ? 184. What is the explanation in a sentence } 
"A good man acts wisely." Here, what is the descrip- 
tion, and what the explanation ? 185. Aow many parts 
are there, then, to a sentence ? What are they ? When 
is a sentence called perfect ? — when imperfect ? Point 
out each part of the sentences in the last exercise, and 
tell whether they are perfect or imperfect. 

Lesson XXII. — Sentences, Simple and Compound. 

Questions. — 186. What two kinds of perfect senten- 
ces ? 187. What is a simple sentence ? Give an exam- 
pla. 193. What is a compound sentence ? Give an 
example. 196. What is analyzing a sentence 1 197. 
What is parsing ? Analyze any of the exercises. 

Lesson XXIII. — Rules 1 and 2. 

Questions. — 198. What relations should words have 1 
Upon what are these relations founded 1 — by what estab 
lishedl 199. What is the relation of a substantive caL 
led ^ How many cases in English'! What are they' 
Repeat rule 1, — rule 2. Give an example of each 
208. How is the possessive of nouns formed^ Parse the 
following : 

[Parse the substantives thus; " John^s, (parse as in Ety.) possesive case, describing dog,*' 
Repeat rule 2. ''Dog {a.s in Ety.)' subjective case, heio.g the subject of barks." Repeat rule 1.— 
" Two (as in Ety,) sub. case, being- with three the subject of are.". Repeat nile 1.] 

Exercise. — John's dog barks. The sun sets. Eagles 



114 EXERCISES. 

fly. The officer's horse kicked the old man's son. 
Men's duties cease. Two and three are five. The boy 
and girl study. Who comes 1 

Lesson XXIV, — Exiles 3 and 4. 

Questions. — Repeat rule 8,— rule 4. " John struck 
George." Which word is subjective, and which objective 1 
" George struck John ;" how is it in this sentence ^ '-' John, 
who struck you 1" Which word is subjective, which ob- 
jective, and which absolute 1 508. What can you say of 
the form of nouns ? How is the possessive formed 1 
What is the possessive of man^ Mary^ tree^ &c. Parse 
the following : 

Exercise. — Eliza's voice trembles. Cain killed Abel. 
The book is on the shelf. Mary, I am waiting for you. 
Peter's cousin's horse limps. Rule 4. He shot a deer. 
We saw a great tree with apples on it. Cats and dogs 
quarrel. The person who steals is punished. The pu- 
pils, that behave properly, shall be rewarded. Food, 
which injures the stomach, should be avoided. Ideas ! 
why, some people's minds have no ideas. 

Lesson XXV. — Pronouns. 

Questions. — 214. What can you say of most pro- 
nouns T What is declining a substantive 1 Decline J, 
thus : '' Sub. J, poss. my^ obj. me ; plural, subjective 2^e," 
&c. Decline you^ tliou^ he^ she^ it^ which^ that. Parse 
the following : 

Exercise. — I struck you. You struck me. He struck 
thee. Thou didst strike him. She struck it. It struck 
her. We struck you. Ye struck us. They struck you. 
Who struck them ^ You struck whom ^ My pen, which 
writes, is poor. Our house, that stands, is white. His 
mind excels her mind. Whose clock struck^ Oh thou, 
who hearest prayer. 

Lesson XXVI.— Rule 5. 

[Recite 218, 19, 21, 26, without questions. — When substantives are in the same relation, parse all 
but the first thus ; — •' George (as in Ety.) sub. case, in relation with John, because they are 
eonnscled by conjunctions. " Repeat rule 5.] 

George and John study. Henry, William, and Edward 



FIRST COURSE. 115 

walked. He or she wrote this letter. Susan, as well as 
Mary, was there. George Washington, the father of his 
country, is dead. Artexerxes, the king, decreed that Ez- 
ra, the priest, and scribe of the law, should be obeyed in 
all things. He is a man. Who is the king '1 This gen- 
tleman is my preceptor and friend. She walks a god- 
dess, and she moves a queen. Bonaparte was made em^ 
peror of France. 

Lesson XX\TI. — Rule 6. 

[Recite 227, and parse a pronoun thus ; — " W'Tio (as in Ety.) with its antecedent he; (repeat 
rule 6.) Sub. case, " &c.] 

He, who did it, knew his duty. The men, that do 
their work well, are well rewarded. I, who am your 
friend, will assist you. They that observed these things, 
remembered them. The trees, which he planted, flour- 
ished. 

Lesson XXVIII. — Eule 7. 

[Recite 233, and parse an adjective thus; — " Good (as in Ety.) agreeing with men." Repeal 
rule 7.] 

Good men labor. The large trees stand. A smart 
horse trots. An old hen cackles. Such people work. 
This book is larger than that block. I am sorry. He is 
hungry. You are an idle boy. See those great apples. 
Full many a flower. Time is short. That kind and 
gentle child. How large and bright is the sun ! At a 
little distance from the ruins of the abbey, stands an aged 
elm. ' 

Lesson XXIX.— Eule S. 

[Reeile 239, 2AQ, 241.— Conjugate the indicative present of move thus : 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1 I move or do move, We move or do move. 

2 < You move or do move, You move or do move, 
\ Thou movest or dost move, Ye move or do move. 

3 He moves or does move, They move or do move. 

So cen jugate the perfect present, /ftare moved, &c. Conjugate the other tenses according to 
240. In the same manner, go through with the verbs walk, love, sit, tcish, &c. Then parse a verb, 
thus ; — " Study (as in Ety.) agreemg with its subject he and she." Repeat rule 8. — Notice, that a 
verb becomes singular as a noun becomes plural.] 

He and she study. I write. Thou thinkest. He 
wishes. We tarry. The glorious sun sinks to its rest. 



116 EXERCISES. 

and the stars appear in the heavens. He who did it, 
knew his duty. Oh thou, who walkest in majesty. The 
man that despises virtue, will be despised. Thou shalt 
appear in brightness. John, Isaac, and Thomas own a 
boat. 

Lesson XXX. — Rule 8. 

[Recite 243, and parse the following :] 

lam. Thou art. He is. You are. I was. Thou 
wast. He was. You were. I shall be. Thou shalt be. 
They shall be. He v/as angry. Ye are vile. We have 
been corrupted. Who is able to withstand him 1 She 
might have been respected. 

Lesson XXXI. — Rule 9. 

[Recite 248, 249, 250 ; and parse an infinitive tlaus ; — " To ride (as in Ety.) used as a substan- 
tive, (repeat rule 9,) being with you the object of wish." Repeat rule 3.] 

I wish you to ride. To walk is good exercise. To 
do as we would be done by, is the essense of morality. 
I expect to see him. Boys love to play. Mary dislikes 
to read. To obey our parents, is a solemn duty. I in- 
duced her to stay. 

Lesson XXXII.— Rule 9. 

[Recite 253, 255 ; and parse the following :] 

I begged her to stay. The ship was about to sail. H!e 
was about to spring. He was able to do little, excepting 
to talk. She sought nothing, save to free herself from 
reproach. I tried [ — ] to find him. He is worthy [ — ] to 
live. We are apt [ — ] to do wrong. To be plain, I 
cannot grant it. To conclude, time is short. 

Lesson XXXIIL— Rule 10. 

A trotting horse goes fast. Susan having dined retired. 
He being wearied sat down. They were walking. I 
have been surprised. You must have been alarmed. It 
is not to be expected. Learned men are generally res- 
pected. Learning is generally respected. Walking is 
good exercise. I am fond of riding. Isaac dreads rising. 
The sun's rising was splendid. The learned are gener- 
ally respected. He repented of having gone. 



FIRST COURSE. 117 



Lesson XXXIV.— Rule 11. 

[Recite 260 ; and parse an adverb thus ; " Very (as in Ety.) qualifying good." Repeat rule 11.] 

Very good boys study very diligently. Peter wept 
bitterly. She went away yesterday. She sung most 
sweetly. Mary rose up hastily. Cain wickedly slew his 
brother. He speaks more correctly. He was most at- 
tentively meditating. The ship was driven ashore. Then 
they were glad. They talk too much. All must die, 
sooner or later. George running hastily, fell down and 
hull himself severely. 

Lesson XXXV.— Rule 12. 

(Recite 267; and parse a conjunction thus; *' And (as in Etj.) connecting the words John and 
William." Repeat rule 12.] 

John and William are coming, but they will soon re- 
turn. He is very kind, and obliging. You and he are 
happy, because you are good. He labors harder than I 
do. If you do virtuously, then you will prosper. Though 
he slay me, yet will I trust in him. As I knew that you 
would grant, I asked. 

Lesson XXXVL— Rules 13 and 14. 

[Recite 271, 274; and parse thus; ''Alas (as in Ety.) and b independent. Repeat rule 14. 
*' To (as in Ety.) showing the relation between alas and me." Repeat rule 13.] 

Alas to me. He sat with a book in his hand. Oh ! 
how cheerful is a seat by a good hot fire, in the great 
stove, on the hearth, in our school house ! With a stick, 
he shoved it under the eaves of the house. Hurrah for 
the President ! We walked through the deep and dark 
Gothic archway. They will come in a carriage. 

Lessotn XXXVII. — Transposition. 

(Recite 275, 281, and transpose the following' :] 

Sweet is the breath of morn. How swiftly time flies. 
With friends 'tis hard to part. O'er hills and dales they 
wend their way. What do people say it is ^ Ye are 
one another's joy. (224.) Whom do you imagine it to 
have been % Here am L 
10 



118 EXERCISES. 

Men in adversity most plain appear : 
It shows us really what and who they are : 
Then from their lips truth undissembled flows ; 
The mask falls off, and the just features shows. 

Lesson XXXVIIL— Ellipsis. 

[Recite 282, 283, and supply thg ellipses in the following :] 

A large and a small apple. He reads and writes. I 
can go, and will. He made a good beginning, but a bad 
ending. I rose at seven. Much rain and snow. They 
sing and play most delightfully. I desire you wdll be 
good. A man, woman, and child. I love and fear him. 



EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE AND FOR CORRECTION. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



1 — 19. The council is in session. The meeting has 
broken up. The committee were divided in opinion. 
The triumphing of the wicked is short. Many a fiery Alp. 
The Park was crowded. Let us go to the Strand. Such 
a Cicero is worthy of his country. Science was over- 
thrown. The sciences flourished. Government was es- 
tablished. A government was established. The twelve 
Caesars. The judgment day. The London of America* 

20 — 34. Whether we grapple it with the pride of phi- 
losophy. — Chalmers, It is impossible to please every one. 
There lives a man. Lives there a man } What things 
we had were taken away. You like what I dislike. 
Whatever comes must go. Whosoever will, may come. 
Who could resist ^ Not I. Whom have I in heaven but 
thee 1 None. Whom you meetj him exhort. You are a 



SECOND COURSE. 119 

man. Thou art the man. Oh thou, that hearest prayer. 
It is stormy. There are seven days in a week. How 
comes it that you are here T 

35 — 56. Spell the plural of wish, cargo, nuncio, dis- 
tich, beauty, day, self, relief, man, child, brother, goose, 
mouse, penny, datum, erratum, crisis, hypothesis, index, 
calx, focus, magus, cherub, seraph, stamen, bandit, dish- 
ful, handful, Mr. Jackson, Miss Stevens, court-martial, 
butter, sloth. Syell the singular of dishes, rebuses, ne- 
groes, glories, staves, loaves, women, oxen, feet, teeth, 
dice, phenomena, arcana, theses, axes, vortices, appendi- 
ces, genera, laminse, beaux, scissors, alms, errata, anti- 
podes. Tell the number of each of the folloicing sub- 
stantives and substantive expressions ; Freeport, chairs, 
fan, he, w^e, series, I, who, that, ye, they, thou, it, which, 
sheep. The school is large ; it is full. The schools are 
large. The school are in their seats. Two hundred 
barrel of fish. John and George are coming. Each 
star and meteor shines. No noise, no breath is near. 
William studies, and James. He or she did it. And 
every sense, and every heart is joy. — Thorn, Each 
beast, each insect, happy in its own. — Pope, Diligent 
industry, and not mean savings, produces honorable com- 
petence. The saint, the father, and the husband prays. 
— Class book. All work, and no play, makes Jack a dull 
boy. — Old Proverb, Twenty sail of vessels. Fifteen 
head of cattle. 

57 — 71. Such an humanity, who can tolerate ? What 

FALSE GRAMMAR. 

36 — 47. Boies, beautys, dishs, strives, loafs, childs, 
brethrens, foots, chairs, axises, generas, handsful, the 
Miss Williamses, pitches, scissor, seraphims, cargos, attor- 
nies, lifes, pences, automatas, vortexes, radiuses, beaus, 
bandittis, the Mr. Bakers. The indices of books. Amer- 
ica has produced many genii. He reveled amid fairys 
and geniuses. This is worth twenty pennies. He was 
used to giving pence to children. He took much pain to 
do it. By this mean he succeeded. I like that specie of 
fruit. He shot two deers. Wheats are veiy high and 
oat is very low. 



120 JEXERCISES. 

an hostility he manifested ! None everlasting, none un- 
changing, reign. I shall take whichever way I please. 
They returned whatever they had stolen. The Lord loves 
the righteous. Full many a gem of purest ray. Many 
a one [person] is found. 

12 — 84. Few men think they have enough wealth. 
Who is wealthier than he ? It was the liveliest creature I 
ever saw. He was the foremost in war, but the hindmost 
in peace ; the best friend of the one, but the worst enemy 
of the other. The eldest was rather clownish in his ap- 
pearance. I tell you a more excellent way. The Most 
High reigneth. She was very amiable, and nearer per- 
fect than any person I ever saw. 

85 — 92. Here I rest. Here I rest my hopes. She lives 
a virtuous life. She sleeps her long sleep. He walked 
the horse. She danced the child. They sink to rest. 
They sink their nets. The wood which he splits, splits 
easily. The meat will hurt, even if you do not hurt it. 
What he reads, reads well. I love to heat a room, which 
heats easily. She worried herself into her grave. They 
sung a song. Where wilt thou that we prepare it 1 — jBi» 
hie. Thou wilt have enough, if thou doest thy duty. 

93—114. Cain killed Abel; Abel did not kill Cain.. 
Did Cain kill Abel 'I Then, if Cain killed Abel, one 
man can kill another. But one man should not kill an- 
other, and must we kill one man if he should kill another % 
Who wishes to be laughed atl We have been trifled 
with. 

115 — 123. They return by the next mail. I shall de- 
pend upon it, but will wait with patience. If you will 

FALSE GRAMMAR. 

61 — 84. A humiliating one. — Irving, This is a his- 
torical allusion. -Another such a one. The ground is 
dryer than common. He is the livelyest person in town, 
she was in the utterest anguish. The littlest apple. A 
gooder man. The lesser Asia. A more loftier moun- 
tain. A more perfect model. The most almighty pow- 
er. The least true story. A less round apple. The 
supremest dignity. Such an infinite number. How eter- 
nal is God ! The most straitest sect of our religion. 



SECOND COURSE. 121 

wait, you shall have it. I dishke, I do dislike such actions. 
I went, I did really go at the time. I was standing. You 
are walking. They had been eating. He is deceived. 
You may have been told. She seems to be fatigued. He 
being wearied sat down to rest. I am come. He is ris- 
en. They are fallen. 

124 — 128. I would rather die than thus go astray. 
There are tv/elve months, namely, viz. or to wit. He 
went two years ago. He was most supremely blest. 
They were less largely concerned. 

129 — 136. He came after I had come. He has been 
here since last Tuesday. You can go while I am wait- 
ing. He said nothing touching that. We shall start, 
notwithstanding this. Avaunt ! foul fiend ! Farewell ! 
my friend ; adieu ! Oh yes ! a long adieu. 

187. He requested to be permitted to live. That mind 
is not matter is certain. He knew of his father's being 
a judge. For an old man to cheat is very disgracefuL 
He permitted me to take it — a kindness I shall ever re- 
member. That he should refuse is not strange. For 
what purpose they embarked, is not known. To be tem- 
perate, to use exercise, and to keep the mind calm, are 
the best preservatives of health. 

139, 140. The first three niiles. A dark brown horse. 
A pea-green jacket. A laughter-loving clown. A good 
old man. It seems to be right. Who would have desired 
to be there ? You are to be supplied. His health made 
necessary the journey. 

141, It marks the degree the more strongly, and de- 

FALSE GRAMMAR. 

122, 123. The book is printing. The boards are plan- 
rng. I am done. We are arrived. They have all 
spelt. He spilt the water. It is your bounden duty. 
He swang it over his shoulder. She has gotten it from 
him, but I gat it first. You had ought to go. He diel 
ought to stay. Yes, quothed he. 

127 — 136. He came more sooner than he ought. He 
feared most least of any. This is more nearer right. 
010! Alas ! Woe to me 1 Yes, yes, I think so. See ! 
behold ! they come, 

10* 



122 EXERCISES. 

fines it the more precisely. The oftener I see him, the 
more I respect him. You can do it as well as I can. 
We have labored in vain. Methinks I see thee there. 

142 — 144. What rests, but that the mortal sentence 
pass. — Milton. And from before the lustre of her face. 
— Thomson, Wo to the day ! that saw thee come. He 
spoke as though he were in earnest, and as though he 
would never shrink. They sat over against the temple.- 

145. Though I forbear, loliat am I eased. — Joh, The 
enemy having his country wasted, what by himself, and 
what by the soldiers, findeth succor in no place. — Spen- 
cer. He went a-shore. He came a-foot, 

147. The laughable in objects particularly attracts him. 
The careless and the improvident, the giddy and the 
fickle, the ungrateful and the interested, everywhere meet 
us. 

Together let us beat this ample field, 

Try what the open, what the covert yield. 

All join to guard what each desires to gain.^ — Pope, 
The few and the many have their prepossessions. Bring 
each of your brothers and the little ones. Inferiors are 
often envious of their superiors. 

149 — 151. A conjunction is a word which connects. 
The is an article. Really ! you are in good season. 
Amazing ! I cannot believe it. The ship came to. The 
enemy hove to. Times gone by. — Irving. We sailed 
about pleasantly. But do not after lay the blame on me. 
He went before I did. 

152 — 156. Since when I have not heard from him. 
Concerning him, I can say nothing. He had nothing, 
bating an old gun without a lock. It will continue from 
now till Saturday. He hath not where to lay his head. 
With him is one eternal now. The Son of God was not 
yea and nay. 

155, 156. I know which way is best ; it is that which I 
take. I know what book he had ; it was what I gave 
him. Whatever sinks, does not float. Whatever form it 
takes is beautiful. Who, that has feeling, wishes that 
time should change that affection ? 

157. He only struck me. He struck me only. The 
ill-natured boy was ill, but the well-behaved boy was well. 
He that has much money is much troubled, and he that 



SECOND COURSE. 123 

has little money, is little better off. A near friend lives 
near me. 

158 — 160. Either you may go and neither may watch, 
or neither you may go nor may either watch. Was there 
no noise ? No ! it was midnight. She needs three dol- 
dollars, for she must needs buy a parasol. 

161, 162. He did it, but not intentionally. None but 
the brave deserve the fair. Born but to die, and reason- 
ing but to err. — Pope, What no man knoweth, saving 
he that receiveth it. — Rev, None but they can aid us. 
I shall not strive for it, for it is wrong. As you insist 
upon it, I will do as well as I can. Yet still, he is yet 
alive, and is still in his senses. Since it was important, I 
have kept it ever since. I repeat, then, that he went 
then, and I say, therefore, that he therefore went. 

163 — 169. Penknife, inkstand, notwithstanding, anoth- 
er, neither, none, myself, whoever, whenever, hereof, 
therefore, whereby, without, ashore, afoot, abed, whoso, 
wheresoever, uphold, intend, undervalue, overthrow, to 
fall on, to cast about, unlearned, preternatural. 

170- — 178. Grandeur, splendid, abbess, tutoress, Jev/- 
ess, heroine, bridegroom, duchess, executive, testatrix, 
widower, richness, enrolment, dukedom, bailiwick, sister- 
hood, partnership, vassalage, prosperity, sulphuret, trans- 
parency, gladsome, lovely, frothy, blissful, comfortless, 
prosperous, widower, straighter, wiser, longer, expectant^ 
prudently, friendly, accordingly, glazier, graze, upholster- 
er, patentee, Charleston, Newton, understand, oversee, 
cast about. 



SYNTAX, 

[for practice in analysis, take any of the exercises.] 

200—207. John's horse kicked William's dog. The 
business being finished, the court adjourned. The sun 
having risen, the day became fine. Plato ! thou reasonest 
well. O grave, where is thy victory ? O death, where is 
thy sting ? English Grammar. Samuel Edwards, Sta- 
tioner. Music ! how sweet its charms. Where none but 
spirits live. 



124 EXERCISES. 

Brutus and Csesar ! what should be in that Csesar ? Sliak. 

Religion, what treasure untold, 

Resides in that heavenly word ! — Cowper. 

Blest morn, that saw our rising God. 

Oh wretched state of deep despair, 

To see my God remove. — Watts. 
A mighty maze ! yet not without a plan. — Pope. 
He that hath ears to hear, let him hear. — Bible. 
208 — 213. The planets' orbits are elliptical. For con- 
science' sake, leave us. Moses' writings remain. Jane, 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

200. Thee must be attentive to thy studies. (See 2 14.) 
Thee is a good boy. When will thee come ? Them 
that oppress the poor shall come to want. Whomsoev- 
er is contented enjoys happiness. He reproved all whom 
he thought had done it. 

201. John book is old. (See 208.) I will not destroy 
the city for ten sake. Moses rod. Much depends on 
the pupil composing frequently. It arose from the Pres- 
ident neglecting his duty. 

202. He spoke to thou. (See 214.) To poor me, 
there is nothing left. Is it I, who thou art angry with }. 
Thou only have I chosen. She I shall more readily for- 
give. Who shall we send ? He that is idle, reprove. 
Who should I meet but my old friend ! How long will 
it take ye to do it ? He accosts whoever he meets. 
They that honor me, I will honor. Who do you think 
I saw } Who did he enquire for ? Thou. Who did 
you go with } Ye who were dead, hath he quickened. 
He who did it, you should correct, not I who am inno- 
cent. Who servest thou under ? 

203. Me being young, they deceived me. (See 214.) 
Thee refusing to comply, I withdrew. The child is lost ; 
and me — whither shall I fly ? Her being absent, the 
business was delayed. They all went, us only excepted. 
Oh thee that hearest prayer. 

Whose grey top 

Shall tremble, him descending. 
20S; Homers works are admired. (See 201.) A 



SECOND COURSE. 125 

Susan, and Nancy's seat is clean. For David my ser- 
vant's sake. Lost in love's and friendship's smile* The 
captain of the guard's house. Felix' room. It is not for 
one's interest to interfere in other's concerns. 

214 — 217. I have your book in my desk. Thou hast 
his hat on thy bench. You and he struck her with it. 
She told him its history. Ye took from us our posses- 
sions. We gave them their due. They knew whom they 
served, and whose interest they sought* A religion whose 
origin is divine. — Blair, Who, that loves his neighbor* 
and whose heart is devoted to his good, would act thus ? 
Theirs is the vanity, the learning thine. He came into 
this world of ours, [our possession.] An acquaintance of 
yours. Mine own beloved home is thine. He himself 
did it. They pleased themselves with the idea. She wept 
herself to sleep. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

mothers tenderness, and a fathers care, are natures' 
gifts for mans advantage. A mans manner's affect his 
fortune. Wisdoms' precepts' form the good mans' hap- 
piness. Apple's are ripe. They are wolves in sheeps 
clothing. 

209. Jesus's feet. Moses's rod. James's hat. For 
Herodias's sake. For righteousness's sake. 

210. Was Cain's and Abel's father there ? Were 
Cain's and Abel's occupations the same ? Were Cain's 
parents and Abel the same ? Were Cain and Abel's 
parents the same ? The Apostle's Paul's advice. It 
was the men's, women's and children's lot, to suffer se- 
verely. For David's my servant sake. Look opposite 
to Morris's and Company's. ' 

211—213. Williams wife's aunt's child's health. 
Ones duty can never be made anothers'. James Hart, 
his book, bought 1839. Asa his heart was not perfect 
with the Lord. 

214 — 217. The tree is known by it's fruit. Thee must 
give me mine horse. This is hisen. Here is our's ; 
what has been done with theirs ? Each is accountable 
for hisself. Tiiey settled it among theirselves. 

219. My brother and him are grammarians. You and 



126 EXERCISES. 

218 — 220. He and his friend were there. You or he 
did it. Washington, as general, led the way to victory. 
She, but not he, was there. He was under Napoleon, 
than whom a greater general never lived. 

221—225. He that formed the ear, shall he not hear ? 
They make utility the only rule of taste. My maker 
formed me man. God called the firmament heaven. 
They twain shall be one flesh. William Haskell, Shoe- 
maker, lives there. Ambition, interest, honor, all con- 
curred. Thou king of saints ! 

Thy maker's will hath placed thee here, 

A maker wise and good. 

Thus shall mankind his guardian care engage. 

The promised /ai^Aer of the future age. — Pope. 
Let us seek each other's good. See how these brethren 
love one another. Mechanics and farmers each have 
their appropriate sphere. As a poet, he is unrivaled. 
He, and he only, can perform the act. 

226. These are commonly reckoned adverbs. He 
taught his sons to become good citizens. I thought it to 
be her. I am the man. Tom struts a soldier. He was 
called Csesar. The general was saluted emperor. They 
have become fools. 
She looks a goddess, and she walks a queen. — Dryden, 

The glim'ring moon shone queen. — Dwight. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

us enjoy many privileges. Between him and I there is a 
difference of age ; but none between him and she. Him 
and I went to the city together ; but John and him re- 
turned without me. Will you permit Ralph and I to go ? 
I will say it between you and I. Let Lemuel and I read. 
I told her as well as they. He expects it from you and 
whoever he has benefited. 

221. I received it from my cousin, she that was here last 
week. I am going to see my friends, they that we met. 
They slew Varus, he that was mentioned before. I sent 
it to my brother's house, him whom you saw here. My 
two friends gave me this, them that we saw last night. 
These books are my friend's, him who keeps the library. 

226. I knQw it to be they. Be composed, it is me. 



SECOND COURSE. 127 

227. The meeting was large ; it held three hours. The 
council were divided in their sentiments. (See 44.) Socra- 
tes and Plato were wise ; they were eminent philosophers. 
(See 50.) Neither John nor James has learned his les- 
son. That philosopher and poet has ended his days. 
Each soldier and each citizen should perform his part. 
I say that this book is mine. She wept herself to sleep. 
John himself knew that the hat was not his. 

228 — 232. See the ship ; how swiftly she sails ! The 
giant war sweeps everything in his course. Whoever is 
idle, him reprove. The pigeon hies to her nest. The 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

I would not act thus, if I were him. Well may you be 
afraid ; it is him, indeed. Who do you fancy him to be ? 
Whom say ye that I am ? If it was not him, who do 
you imagine it to have been ? He supposed it was me ; 
but you knew it w^as him. 

227. Every man will be rewarded according to their 
works. Rebecca took goodly raiment, and put them on 
Jacob. Take handfuls of ashes, and let Moses sprinkle 
it. No one should incur censure for being tender of their 
reputation. The nation was once powerful ; but now 
they are feeble. The multitude eagerly pursue pleasure 
as its chief good. (See 44.) The committee were divi- 
ded in its sentiments. The people rejoice in that which 
should give it sorrow. Coffee and sugar grow at the 
south, whence it is exported. (See 50.) Pride and vani- 
ty always render its possessor despicable. Despise no 
infirmity or condition of life, for they may be thy own 
lot. A-preposition is used to connect other words ; they 
ai'e put before nouns. A certain number of syllables 
form a foot ; they are called feet, because, <kc. The so- 
ciety is large ; she is in a prosperous state. (See 56.) 

228. I am happy in the friend which I have long proved. 
This is the horse whom my father imported. He has 
two brothers, one of which I know. What was that 
creature whom Job called leviathan ? Those which de- 
sire to be safe, should do that which is right. There was 
a. certain housholder, which planted a vineyard. The 
cattle who broke loose, have been found. 



128 EXERCISES. 

calf was large, therefore they killed it. Thou art the 
king that reigneth. Thou art the king that reigns. Thou 
who art our God, whose we, are and whom we obey. 
The monarch of mountains rears his snowy head. 

Penance dreams her life away. — Rogers. 

Grim darkness furls her leaden shrowd. — id. 
233 — 238. Every other time. Every third day. I 
love sugar and vinegar ; but that is sweet, and this is sour ; 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

229 — 232. The king of day rises in all its splendor. 
Whoever is upright, will succeed in its undertakings 
Thou art the Lord, that didst choose Abraham, and 
brought him out of Ur. You wept, and I for thee. 
You learned an all-commanding power. 
Thy mimic soul can well recall. — Collins. 

233. Things of this sort are easily understood. (See 
60.) Who broke that tongs ? (46.) Where did I drop 
this scissors ? I disregard this minutiae. Those kind of 
injuries. We rode ten mile an hour. Twenty pound of 
beef. The water is six fathom deep. The lot is twenty 
foot wide. Scholasticus tried to appear learned, and, by 
these means, rendered himself ridiculous. Caled was 
modest, docile, and ingenious ; and, by this means, ac- 
quired great fame. A thousands were there. He has 
been there this three years. Every men must die. 

235. Much multitudes collected. He was such an ex- 
travagant young man. I never before saw such large 
trees. Did either of the company assist you ? Here are 
six, but neither of them will answer. Have you recited 
either of the ten commandments this morning ? Here 
are two, but every one of them is spoiled. 

236. Hope is as strong an incentive to action as fear ; 
this is the anticipation of good, that of evil. The poor 
want some advantages which the rich enjoy ; but we 
should not therefore account the former happy, and the 
latter miserable. 

Memory and forecast just returns engage, 
This pointing back to youth, that on to age. 

237. He chose the latter of the three. Trissyllables 
are often accented on the former syllable. Which are 



SECOND COURSE. 129 

the former is solid, the latter liquid. What is sweeter 
th^n honey ? This is the smaller of the pair. Which is 
the warmest month of the twelve ? The Browns were 
here last eve. The Caesars are no more. New York is 
the London of America. To such excellence, few have 
attained. To such excellence a few have attained, 
239 — 247. He ought to stay. She need not fear such 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

the two more remarkable isthmuses in the world ? Israel 
loved Joseph more than all his children. Eve was the 
fairest of all her daughters. Hope is the most constant of 
all the other passions. He is the better of the other two. 
238. Let us wait in the patience and the quietness. 
The contemplative mind delights in the silence. I expec- 
ted some such an answer. You will never have another 
such a chance. I persecuted this way unto the death. 
He is worthy the appellation of a gentleman. The chief 
magistrate is styled a President. He has the commission 
of a Captain. He is a better writer than a reader. He 
was an abler mathematician than a linguist. I should 
rather have an orange than apple. He is in a great haste. 
He is in great hurry. A man is the noblest work of 
creation. Such qualities honor the nature of a man. 
Drunkenness impairs understanding. 

240. If thou do prosper my way. — Gen, To devote all 
thou had to his service. If thou should come. What 
thou said. If thou submitted. Since thou left. Before 
thou puts. — Kendall, Thou clears the head. Thou 
comes. Unseen thou lurks. — Burns, Oh thou, that 
hears prayer. (See 227.) Thou, who sees in secret. 

Oh thou my voice inspire. 

Who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire. 

241. She dare not oppose it. He may pursue what 
studies he please. What have become of our cousins ? 
Circumstances alters cases. What says his friends on 
the subject ? What avails good sentiments with a bad 
life ? Has those books been sent ? What sounds have 
each of the vowels ? The number look large. My peo- 
ple doth not consider. (See 44.) The multitude eagerly 
pursues pleasure. Patience and faith removes mountains. 

11 



130 EXERCISES. 

a foe. Were I in his place, I would return. Such a thing 
were to be desired. Who art thou ? His pavilion were 
dark waters. To tread, as it were, in the footsteps of 
antiquity. — Irving, If you had made an assignation, you 
had done wisely. — Montague, 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

(See 50.) Time and tide waits for no man. Wisdom, 
virtue, happiness, dwells with the golden mediocrity. 
He that do his duty will prosper. They who strives to do 
right will be blessed. If he do not utter it. — Lev, He 
or she study improperly. Now abideth faith, hope, char- 
ity. — Bible. He comes ; nor want nor cold his course 
delay. — Johnson, 

243, 244. You was there. He that are. We that be. 
You be the one. I be about to go. Thou that is. Ye who 
was. If thou was there. The committee was divided in 
opinion. (44.) The congregation is in their seats. The 
school are dismissed. He and she is going. (50.) His 
politeness and good disposition was entirely changed. 
Idleness and ignorance is the parent of vice. He or his 
brother were there. Milton, that philoshpher and poet, 
are dead. No noise, no breath are near. Every boy 
and girl are present. A long course of time, with a va- 
riety of accidents, are necessary, &c. 

245. Dear friend. Am sorry to hear of thy loss ; but 
hope it may be retrieved. Should be happy to render 
thee any assistance in my power. Two substantives, 
when they come together, the former must be in the pos- 
sessive case. He, where is he } 

"Will martial flames forever fire tliy mind. 
And never, never, be to heaven resigned ? 

246. Not I but thou am happy. Neither he nor thou 
was there. Either the boys or I were in fault. Neither 
the captain nor the sailors was saved. The crown of 
virtue is peace and honor. Either thou or I art greatly 
mistaken. 

247. I remember the family more than twenty years. 
I have completed the work more than a week ago. I 
have seen the coronation last summer. They have resi- 
ded there, till a few months ago. This has been former- 



SECOND COURSE. 131 

248 — 256. He made each man work. He will not let 
them go. We see people do wrong. I dare say she will 
arrive. He was heard to say it. It was made to appear. 
It is difficult to tell. I have to write daily. He ought to 
go. Let there be light. Rapture yet [ ] to be. The 
world to come. You are not kind to treat me thus. He 
went so far as to promise attendance. To be or not to be 
— that is the question. 

257 — 259. He was told to work. He was paid the 
money. I was denied this privilege. He was engaged 
in taking the city. He was engaged in the taking of the 
city. He was taking the city. He requested to be per- 
mitted to live. 

260—266. On ! ye brave. To the right ! forward ! 
rU in ; ril in. Love hath wings, and will away. He 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

ly much admired. I have in my youth, trifled with healh. 
Charles has grown since I have seen him. The next 
new-year's day, I shall be at school three years. I should 
be obliged to him, if he will gratify me in that particular. 
Fierce as he moved, his silver shafts resound. And he 
that was dead, sat up, and began to speak. 

251. I need not to solicit him. You ought not walk 
fast. I wish him not contend. I dare not to proceed. I 
have seen them to conduct badly. 

252. I intended to have rewarded my son. I thought 
I should have lost it before I arrived. This it was my 
duty to have done. They were expecting to have found 
an opportunity to have betrayed him. I feared he would 
have died before our arrival. They would have taken 
care to have avoided it. I desire to have written sooner. 

258. By observing of truth, you will command esteem. 
He prepared them, by the sending proper information. 
You cannot succeed without the taking pains for it. Noth- 
ing is worse than marrying of such a man. I could not 
forbear pitying of him. I have heard them discussing of 
this subject. 

263. His property is near exhausted. They lived con- 
formable to prudence. He reasons clear. He w^as ex- 
treme beloved. He speaks fluent, he reads excellent, but 



132 EXERCISES. 

went almost across the road. O Hershel, discovery here 
is all thy own. To thee my thoughts continual climb. 
He is exceeding brave. Will you go ? No, no, no ! 
Hither I come. He feels happy. He works happily. 

267 — 270. He both eat and slept. I feared lest he 
should fall. This is better than that. I would rather go 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

does not think very coherent. He behaved submissive. 
I cannot think so mean of him. He was scarce gone. 
They conducted exceedingly indiscreetly. He is exceed- 
ing upright. She dresses neat. 

264. I will not by no means entertain him. Nobody 
never invented nor discovered nothing, in no way equal 
to this. Be honest, nor take no shape nor semblance of 
disguise. I did not like neither his temper nor his prin- 
ciples. 

265. Bring him here, I shall go there again. Where 
are they all riding ? Whither have they been. He 
walked there very fast. 

266. This is agreeably to our interest. His behavior 
was not suitably to his station. Conformably to their 
thoughts was their gesture. The clouds look darkly. 
The apple tastes sourly, 

267. He was older, but not so tall, as his brother. 
Whatever has, is, or shall be published. These interests 
are always different, sometimes contrary to those. Did 
he not tell me his fault, and entreated me to forgive him ? 
Doth he not leave the ninety, and seeketh that which is 
gone astray ? A caret is placed where some word is 
left out, and which is inserted. Where some necessary 
information is introduced, and which may be omitted. 

268. He is both wise, as well as good. I feared lest 
he had fallen. He is superior in morals and in manners, 
than most men. He said, that, though he were ever so 
wise. 

269. It was read by the old and young. Both a large 
and small grammar. The old and new method. Both 
of pronouns and adjectives. Either of matter or mind. 
Either in an active or a neuter sense. Nouns in the sin- 
gular and plural number. The second and third person. 



SECOND COURSE. 133 

than stay. Unless you return, you die. It matters not 
whether you go or stay. He is as good as great. Though 
he is poor, yet he is respected. He sleeps, and he will 
sleep forever. 

271 — ^274. He went to Boston — even unto Boston — in- 
to Boston. He came from Portland. He is in haste to 
be at home. The book of William's brother. By faith, 
he looked with joy for death, fearless amid dangers. He 
was averse to play. He had an aversion to play. 

[For practice in transposition, take any of the exercises.] 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

270. If he understand the subject, and attends to it. 
To be moderate in our views, and proceeding temperate- 
ly, secure success. He might have been happy, and is 
now fully convinced of it. 

272. I have been to London, after having resided at 
France. They are going for Liverpool. They live at 
Ireland. I divided it between the three. Divide it 
among the two. Let us go above stairs. The shells 
were broken in pieces. They are gone in the meadow. 

273. Averse from duty. Difficulty of fixing the mind.. 
Accused for betraying. He died for thirst. Confide on 
him. A prejudice to him. Rely in this. Disappointed 
of it. This is different to that. Founded in truth. 
First efforts in this subject. 

278. A young fine man. An old rich man. The two 
first were gentlemen ; the three others, ladies. The two 
first syllables. The four last verses. 

279. He feared to deliberately do it. He appeared to 
carefully examine it. 

280. He speaks in a distinct enough manner to be heard. 
A conjunction is cliiefly used to connect. They are 
chiefly marked by cases. These are chiefly derived 
from other languages. Conjunctions are principally di- 
vided, &c. Syntax principally consists of two parts. 
Adverbs seem originally to have been- contrived. Rela- 
lative pronouns relate, in general, to some word, &c. 
That boy is the grandson of Washington, who is playing 
there. William's, (who has left,) hat. Whom do you 
look for ? Which street do you live upon ? I saw a 

11* 



134 EXERCISES. 

283. Lo, the poor Indian, who, &c. — Pope. One 
perishes, or both. Who could but weep at such a sight ? 
I know not what [ ] to do. There are several particulars ; 
as, or as follows. What ! put me off till September. 
Our best thanks for your Indian sweetmeats.— Xan^Aor/ic. 
He cares not what he says. 

284. A dozen times is as good as a hundred. A mil- 
lion years. A great many little men. A half a mile 
intervened. A little riches is a charming thing. Every 
twelve months is a year. Here's a few flowers! but 
about midnight more. — Cymherline. Six times four are 
twenty-four. 

285. He has gone a hunting. We rode sixty miles 
that day. The wall is ten feet high. Wheat is eight 
shillings a bushel. He resided here many years. 

286. I paid him the debt. They offered me a seat. 
He asked them the question. I would beg you to come. 
They made him a present. She taught me grammar. 

287. And who but wishes to invert the laws of order, 
sins. Who dies shall live again. 

288. This picture of my friend's. A subject of the 
emperor's. I sing the nine. Philip was one of the sev- 
en. He came unto his own, and his own received him 
not. 

289—293. Whose books are these ? John's. Who 
gave them to him ? I. It is worthy the highest reverence. 
It is worth a shilling. They are nothing like each other. 
Gome this way. You or I will go. 

294. My soul turn from them, turn we to survey. — 
Goldsmith, Fall he that must, and live the rest. — Pope, 
Blessed be he. — Bible. Thy kingdom come. — id. 

295. If to be perfect, then are we happy. Though he 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

ship gliding under full sail through a spy glass. All over 
the country. 

295. Despise not any condition, lest it happens to be 
thy own. If he acquires riches, they will corrupt his 
mind. I shall walk unless it rains. As the teacher de- 
part the scholars behave improperly. Though He be 
high, He hath respect to the lowly. 



SECOND COURSE. 135 

slay me. Unless he wash himself. Had I been there. 
If the stage arrive. Unless thou come. Though thou 
depart. 

296, 297. Granting this, what will follow. The very 
chin was, modestly speaking, as long as my whole face. 
— Addison. He went a week since. He died a year 
ago. Who went up the road ? 

298. An object so high as to be invisible. He desired 
no more than to know this. Avoid such as are vicious. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

298. He is as wise as thee, but more sinful than her. 
Not fear but labor have overcome him. All save us are 
happy. She as well as her sister have arrived. I, but 
not thou, wilt go. 

300. Why do ye that which is not lav/ful to do ? It 
always has, and always will be laudable. This is the 
worst thing could happen. He is still in the situa- 
tion you saw him. I know no part would yield more 
variety. In the temper of mind he was in. He desired 
they might go. Return thanks to whom only they are 
due. Opposite the church. 

301, 302. I will not allow of it. It is now extant. 
He gave it free gratis. I am going to go. He is a com- 
ing. I am a going. From whence sailed the expedi- 
tion. — Living. From whence can be discerned. — id. Like 
as a father pitieth his son. He said how that he would 
go. He has got it. Who finds him in money. He 
covered it over. If I had have known it earlier. He 
had'nt ought to do it. He killed them dead. He men- 
tioned it over again. He went for to worship. He an- 
swered and said. They both met together. The hour 
is coming in the which.^ — Bible. 

303. I had much rather be myself the slave. Cowper. 
I left my books to bind. This house is to let. I am to 
blame. I have ever been of this mind. Excuse me for 
not calling. It is acquired by practise. He said how he 
could go. I feared lest I should be deserted. He is sel- 
dom or ever right. They will never believe but what it 
was me. Be it never so true. I have not hearn it. 
Was I an officer, &c. Is the gentleman in ? Frequent 



136 EXERCISES. 

To as many as received him. They were as follows. 
He is angry, as appears by this letter. He is taller than 
I. He knows as much as you. N. B. But^ save^ and as 
well as^ properly come under this remark, for they all are 
more correctly considered as conjunctions than as prepo- 
sitions ; as. None but he [ ] was there, (not him,) All 
save thou [ ] are gone, (not tliee.) Nothing but wailings 
was heard. No man save he had survived.— Sco^^. We, 
as well as thou, have been. Love, and not fear, prevails. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

opportunity. Give me them books. He seed him afore. 
I an't cold. We wer'nt cold. Whither he will or no. 
Be that as it will. He knows nothing on it. He is 
keeping schooL He has just gone past. I will speak 
firstly of him. He has a good deal of care. Boston and 
New-York have much business, especially the later. 

304. The then ministry. The soonest time. The 
above discourse. Thine often infirmities. It seems 
strangely. 

305. Repenting him of his design. They enlarged 
themselves on the subject. Flee thee away. From call- 
ing of names, he proceeded to blows. To vie charities. 
He strives to agree opposite things. She afiects, in or- 
der to ingratiate with you. I will not allow of it. He 
was entered into the house by his friends. It lays on the 
table. Will you lie it down ? He was setting in a chair. 
Will you sit it down ? Learn me grammar. They are 
growing cotton. 

306. I had wrote. He begun. He run. I have eat. 
He would have spoke. The sea has rose. You have 
mistook it. I have catched cold. The villain was hung. 
To have went. I done it. James has wrote his copy. 
Could he have bore it. You should not have did so. He 
hath bore witness. 

307. Of some of the books of each of these classes 
of literature, a list will be given. He expressed the 
pleasure he had in the hearing of the philosopher. We 
have stricken ofi* a thousand copies. Thou laughest and, 
talkest, when thou oughtest to have been silent. Ye 
can't deceive God. 



SECOND COURSE. 137 



Promiscuous Exercises in Parsing. 

She seems to lord it (22) over the deep. — Irving, Have 
mercy (18) upon us. There (22) is no peace. He knows 
what is right. Whoever (25) drinks must die. Two 
hundred (48) barrel of fish. Two and three make five. 
(50, 181.) That philosopher and poet was (50, 223) one. 
Each doctor and lawyer is (50) one. An (62) historical 
poem. None everlasting reign. (63.) Full many (68) 
a flower is born to blush unseen. One rules by laws, 
another by power. (71, 147, 288.) This is a book of 
John's. (288.) He ran himself (90) to death. The cur- 
few tolls the knell (90) of parting day. Where wilt (92) 
thou that w^e prepare it? If thou go. (295.) If thou 
shouldst go. (96, 188 — 192.) It were a pity were (244) 
he thus disgraced. It had (244) been well for him, had 
(295) he gone. You are smiled upon. (102.) We leave 
(117) next week. I will go, he will go. (118.) I did go. 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN FALSE GRAMMAR. 

The scriptures are more valuable than any writings. I 
shall say nothing farther. I had rather go. You lay in 
bed too late. They were conversing together about it. 
He fell down off from the hill. They bear a mutual 
likeness to each other. They entered into the house. 
Restore that back again. At the first beginning of the 
book. Let us speak, first of all, of that. I mixed them 
both together. I searched all the country throughout. I 
have just now written. He only spoke three words. 
Where are you a going. He put money in his pocket. 
This here. I cannot by no means allow of it. I in- 
tended to have rewarded him. He is exceeding upright. 
These will take soonest and deepest root. A worser 
conduct. It runs the faster, the lesser weight it carries. 
I will give them two quills to my friend. Every person 
are bound by the duties of morality. A new pair of 
shoes. We have within us an intelligent principle, dis- 
tinct from body and from matter. The title of a duke 
was given him. The number of inhabitants in the two 
countries do not exceed sixteen millions. The fleet were 



138 EXERCISES. 

(119.) I am moving. (120.) I am moved. (121.) He 
did it when (131) he pleased. I wish you to ride. (138, 
250.) The first two (139, 234) stanzas. It is to be. (140.) 
Methinks (141) I see him. The more (141) I strive. 
He ran as though (142) he were crazy. He sat over 
against (143) the temple. Alas to me ! (144) I am un- 
done. A few men. (148,284.) A hundred sheep. (284.) 
I will give you a solution of the comma^ and^ and it, ( 149.) 
He rode about. (151.) It comes from above. (153.) He 
said that he should punish that boy that did it. (156.) 
Who else (157) was there ? Can you go .^ No! (159.) 
He must needs (160) go through Samaria. Oh deep en- 
chanting prelude (203 — 206) to repose. Syntax. (207.) 
The king of England's crown. (210.) This is my book, 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN FALSE GRAMMAR. 

seen sailing up the channel. It is impossible continually 
to be at work. Thou, which has been a witness of the 
fact. They which seek wisdom will certainly find her. 
There are millions of people in China, whose support is 
derived from rice. He instructed the crowds who sur- 
rounded him. Who ever entertains such an opinion, he 
judges erroneously. Who did they send to him ? Is it 
I, who he is displeased with ? Thou or I art greatly mis- 
taken. Humanity and knowledge, with poor apparel, 
excels pride and ignorance under costly attire. The 
possession of our senses entire, of a sound under- 
standing, of friends and companions, are often overlook- 
ed. Take heed lest thou fail est. On condition that he 
comes, I will consent to stay We have as many advan- 
tages as them ; but they have one greater privilege than 
us. Several alterations and additions have been made to 
the work. He is more bold, but not so wise as his com- 
panion. Neither has he, nor any other persons suspect- 
ed it. The court of France or England was to be the 
umpire. Take the same measures that I have. We do 
not want it more than the rest of our neighbors. The 
deaf man whose ears were open, and his tongue loosened. 
The fields are pleasant ; but never so much as in the 
spring. Their intentions might, and probably were, good. 
Sincerity is as valuable, and- even more valuable than 



SECOND COURSE. 139 

and that too is mine. (215.) I myself (217) will go, 
Washington, than whom (220) a greater man never lived. 
The forefathers of the hamlet sleep each (224) in his 
narrow cell. The sun rises in all his (229) splendor. 
He need (242) not go. Who art thou. (246.) To lie 
(249) is base. I wish to ride. (250.) I will labor to do 
it. (253.) He was asked his opinion. (259.) Away! 
old man. (261.) Say first, of God above (261) or man 
below. He will be home next week. (285.) Tell me 
(286) your opinion. He said unto the sea, " Peace, (283) 
be still." To live long ought not to be your favorite wish, 
so much as to live well. (298.) The plank is one inch 
too thick. They cried, '' Aw^y with him." Ye are one 
another's joy. (224.) They love each other. He called 
the company, man by man. Only he struck me. He 
only struck me. You are infinitely|too good ; first, to 
write (253) a kind letter, &c. — More, Bustle is delight- 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN FALSE GRAMMAR. 

knowledge. It shall be displayed and heard in the clear- 
est light. Examples to be corrected undemote 1. The 
why and wherefore. Mode is a form of the verb ; there 
are five. The words parent, &c. are used indifferently 
for males and females. Ish may be accounted in some 
sort a degree of comparison. In some words, the su- 
perlative is formed by adding most to the end of them. 
Common use in which the caprice of custom is apt to get 
the better of analogy. What is equivalent to that and 
which. The plural others is only used when apart from 
the noun. The may agree with nouns in the singular and 
plural number. The relative being of the same person 
that the antecedent is. They retain the same termina- 
tion that they w^ould, &c. Parse the prepositions, nouns, 
&X3. governed by them. The higher the river, the swift- 
er it flows. James learns easier than Juliet. Such a bad 
temper is seldom found. Where abouts is it ? Look on 
page nineteen. A crow is a large black-bird. I saw a 
horse fly through the window, (horsefly,) I don't think 
it is so. Aint, haint, wont, woodent, izzent, whool, &:c. 
I reckon so. I guess I am here. I bear the whole heft. 
Has he ben here ? Dooz he know it ? &c. &:c. 



140 EXERCISES. 

ed with his nut-crackers, and says he now loves Hannah 
More a great deal, and Miss Neal only a little. A genu- 
ine Roger of the vale. — Langhorne. Angels and men, 
assist me. Angels and men assist me. He requested to 
be permitted to live. I do not care a sixpence whether 
he is wet or dry. The darker the ignorance, the more 
praise to the sage who dispels it ; — the deeper the preju- 
dice, the more fame to the courage which braves it. — 
Few days in Athens. Ah ! my sons, here is indeed a 
pain, a pain that cuts into the soul. — id. Is it forbidden 
us to mourn its loss ? If it be, the pov>^er is not with us 
to obey. — id. The happier reign the sooner it begins ; 
reign then ; what better canst thou do the while. — Milton. 
Knowest thou not this of old, since man is placed upon 
the earth, that the triumphing of the wicked is short, and 
the joy of the hypocrite but for a moment? — Joh. They 
shall every one turn to his own people, and flee every 
one into his own land. — Isaiah. Ye have heard that it 
hath been said, " An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a 
tooth." — Matt. Then the king of Babylon's army be- 
sieged Jerusalem, and Jeremiah the prophet was shut up 
in the court of the prison which was in the king of Ju- 
dah's house. — Jer. I know not who he is. 

Love. 

The ransomed spirit to her home, 
The clime of cloudless beauty, flies ; 

No more on stormy seas to roam, 
She hails her heaven in the skies. 

But cheerless are those heavenly fields, 

The cloudless clime no pleasure yields. 
There is no bliss in bowers above. 
If thou art absent, holy love ! — Tappan. 

Remember Me. 

Remember thee ! remember thee ! while flows the purple 

tide, 
ril keep thy precepts in my heart, thy pattern for my guide. 
And when life's little journey ends, and light forsakes my 

eye, 
Be near me at my bed of pain, and teach me how to die. 

Sigourney. 



SECOND COURSE. 141 

Eden. 

In your imagination go back to the origin of the world, 
when every thing was very good, and all creation har- 
monized together. Love beamed from every countenance ; 
harmony reigned in every breast, and flowed mellifluous 
from every tongue ; and the grand chorus of praise, be- 
gun by raptured seraphs around the throne, and heard 
from heaven to earth, was re-echoed back from earth to 
heaven. — Pay son. 

My Mother. 

My mother's voice ! how often creep 

Its accents o'er my lonely hours ! 
Like healing sent on wings of sleep, 

Or dew to the unconscious flowers. 
I can forget her melting prayer. 

While leaping pulses madly fly ; 
But in the still, unbroken air. 

Her gentler tones come stealing by. 
And years, and sin, and manhood, flee, 
And leave me at my mother's knee. — Willis. 

Religion. 

It is heroflice to elevate and improve mankind ; not by 
looking down upon them from above, but by dwelling fa- 
miliarly and habitually among them, restraining by the 
respect which her presence inspires, every thing impure 
and unholy, until she has awakened aspirations after the 
pure, the holy, the spiritual, the infinite, and the eternal. 
— Whitman, 

Youthful Sport. 

Encompass yourself as often as possible with the gay 
faces of the young. Teach them by example, to be hap- 
py like rational beings, and to enjoy life without abusing^ 
it. Let the ripe fruit be seen with the green — the blos- 
som with the bud — the green with the fading leaf, and 
the vine with its natural support : 

Show the ripe fruit with the ^reen — 

Fresh leaves twining' with the sear; 
As in tropic climes is seen 

Harmonizing through the year. — Furbish. 

12 



142 exercises. 

Eloquence. 

Let the minions of legitimacy extinguish, if they can, 
the emulation of ancient eloquence ; it is their most dan- 
gerous enemy ; but let us, who inherit the liberties of the 
ancient republics, cherish it with a sacred devotion. It is 
at once the child and the champion of freedom. — Ware, 

The Burial. 

" Room for the dead !" — a cry went forth — 

" A grave — a grave prepare !" 
The solemn words rose fearfully 

Up through the stilly air ; 
" Room for the dead !" — and a corse was borne 

And laid within the pit ; 
But a mother's voice was sadly heard — 

^' Oh, bury him not yet !" — C. P. llsley. 

Our Country. 

What nation presents such a spectacle as ours, of a 
confederated government, so complicated, so full of checks 
and balances, over such a vast extent of territory, with 
so many varied interests, and yet moving so harmonious- 
ly ! Show me a spectacle more glorious and more en- 
couraging, even in the pages of all history. — Brooks, 

Chief Justice Marshall. 

Oh ! well, with spirit bowM, 

Above his bier 
May a broad empire crowd, 
With prayer and tear ! 
— His be its requiem — deep and far — 
A nation's heart his sepulchre ! — Grenville Mellen, 

The Soul. 

Aided by the brightest images of earth, who can bring 
to vievv any tolerably good picture of the human soul ! 
— who can draw the outlines of thought !- — thought that 
is immeasurable as the universe ! — thought that could en- 
compass^ with the quickness of the lightning's flash, all 
that God has made. — Cox, 



SECOND coinisE. 143 

Noon in India. 

Then all grew still. The sultry air 
Lay stagnant in the jungles there ; 
The floweret closed its withered bell ; 
From the parched leaf the insect fell ; 
The panting birds all tuneless clung 
To the still boughs where late they sung ; 
The dying blossoms felt the calm, 
And the still air was thick with balm. 

Mrs. Stephens. 

The First Settlers. 

When we look back a space of just two hundred years, 
and compare our present situation, surrounded by all the 
beauty of civilization and intelligence, with the cheerless 
prospect which awaited the European settler, whose voice 
first startled the stillness of the forest ; our hearts should 
swell with gratitude to the author of all good, that thesa 
high privileges are granted to us.— TFm. Willis. 

Valley of Silence. 

Has thy foot ever trod that silent dell ? 
'Tis a place for the voiceless thought to swell, 
And the eloquent song to go up unspoken. 
Like the incense of flowers whose urns are broken, 
And the unveiled heart to look in and see. 
In that deep, strange silence, its motions free, 
And learn how the pure in spirit feel 
That unseen presence to which they kneel. — Cutter. 

Extract from the "War Song." 

Men of the North ! look up ! 

There 's a tumult in your sky ; 
A troubled glory surging out ; 

Great shadows hurrying by. 

Men of the North ! awake ! 

Ye 're called to from the deep ; 
Trumpets in every breeze — 

Yet there ye lie asleep. — Neah 



144 exercises. 

Worship, 

In the sanctuary is the concentrated devotion of many 
hearts. Heaven is brought down to earth ; eternity takes 
hold on time ; this world yields its usurped throne in the 
hearts of men, and Jehovah reigns triumphant, the Lord 
of their affections. — Cummings, 

April. 

Sweet April ! many a thought 
Is wedded unto thee, as hearts are wed ; 
Nor shall they fail, till, to its autumn brought, 

Life's fruit is shed. — Longfellow, 

The Teacher's Farewell. 

The season of our union has now come to an end ; its 
labors and its cares are over, its pleasures and its pains. 
You have engaged with zeal and success in the pursuit of 
science, and your bosoms are swelling wdth anticipa- 
tions of the scenes of activity and usefulness, upon which 
you expect ere long to enter. Go on, then, to your work ! 
You will find enough of holy benevolence to be exercis- 
ed, and enough of arduous labor to be performed. A 
world is stretching forth its hands for your assistance, 
and it is glorious to live for your Maker and for man. 

Fix high your object, and never flinch from its pursuit, 
to the latest hour of your mortal career. The storms 
and the tempests of earth may lower around you, and 
the clouds of adversity obscure, for a time, the sun of 
your hope. But that sun will at last burst forth in all its 
splendor, and gild with eternal radiance the diadem upon 
the victor's brow ! 

Thus, though we all meet no more on this consecrated 
spot, and amid these hallowed scenes of your youthful 
studies — though the next setting sun may find us far, far 
apart ; you may each twine your memories around this 
shrine of your early affections, and, living for a common 
cause, may look upward to a common reward. — G, 






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